媒體在公衆外交的貢獻及國家新聞網對現代國際關係的影響 – 以CNN和Russia Today為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際事務學院外交學系研究所 Graduate Institute of Diplomacy College of International Affairs National Chengchi University. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 立媒體在公衆外交的貢獻及國家新聞網對現代國際關係的影響 – 以 CNN 和 Russia Today 為例. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. The Role of Media in Public Diplomacy and the Impact of National News Networks on Contemporary International Relations – the Case of CNN and Russia Today. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Student: Inga Krupinova Advisor: Hong-yi Lien. 中華民國 106 年 3 月 March 2017.

(2) 摘要如今，全球化進程和大規模跨界過程對全球轉變具有很大的影響，在這個情況下信息和通信技術對國外社會的影響發揮關鍵的作用。目前國際關係專家指出兩種這樣的影響。第一個影響官方結構，即外交官和政治家，第二個影響公共組織，商業結構和不同國家的人口。最後一個是稱之為 “公眾外交”，這有助於使用媒體機制公開對特定國家活動的國外意見。與印刷媒體平行，可以強調，現在的電視媒體對國外意見. 政治大 “電視外交”的概念來解釋國家領導人和外交官決定把全球電視廣播當成政治平台。立. 和國際進程的動態有很大的影響。為了提高電視媒體的獨特特徵，媒體分析家提出了. ‧ 國. 學. 目前大眾媒體討論的主要議題是國際恐怖主義、國內及國際戰爭、非法毒品和人口販運、新疾病的出現和擴散、氣候變化和其他問題。不同的國家使用自己的方法. ‧. 來研究這些問題，並導致一般公眾對當今發生的事情看法有所不同。這表示每個國家. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 傳導訊息的方法有所不同，這些方法與各國家的外交政策直接相關。因此，本論文專注於國家新聞網對當代國際關係的影響，特別側重於 CNN 和 RT 及其對美國和俄羅斯. n. al. 聯邦發展外交政策戰略的影響。. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 關鍵字: 公眾外交，電視外交，媒體，國家新聞網，CNN， RT.

(3) ii. Abstract Nowadays there are transformations affected by the globalization processes and largescale cross-border activities, where information and communication technologies have started to play a crucial role in terms of influencing foreign societies. Up to date international relations specialists emphasize two levels of such impact. The first one influences on the official structures, namely diplomats and politicians, while the second one has an impact on public organizations, business structures and population of different countries. The last one we are used to calling "Public Diplomacy", which help to form foreign opinions about the activities of a particular country, using media mechanisms. Drawing a parallel with printed media, one can stress that nowadays television media has a great impact on foreign opinion. 政治大. and the dynamics of international processes. In order to outline TV-media distinctive features, media analysts presented the concept "telediplomacy", where state leaders and diplomats. 立. have started to use the global television broadcast as a platform for the proclamation of their. ‧ 國. 學. political decisions.. The main topics mass media discusses today are all about the international terrorism,. ‧. local and international wars, illegal drug and human trafficking, emergence and spread of new diseases, climate change and other issues. Different countries use their own approaches. Nat. sit. y. to examine these problems, which lead to completely different interpretation of general. io. er. public on what is happening nowadays. It means that in each country there are different methods of supplying information materials, which are directly related to the foreign policy. n. al. i n U. v. of any country. Therefore, this study is focused on the impact of national information. Ch. engchi. networks on contemporary international relations, and particularly focused on CNN and Russia Today and their influence on the development of foreign policy strategies in the United States and the Russian Federation.. Keywords: Public Diplomacy, Telediplomacy, Mass Media, National News Networks, CNN, RT.

(4) iii. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1.. Introduction...................................................................................................... 1. 1.1.. Background and Purpose of the Research ...................................................................... 1. 1.2.. Significance of the Topic and Research Objectives ....................................................... 3. 1.3.. Methodology and Empirical Base ................................................................................... 5. 1.4. Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................................... 6 1.5.. Scope/limit .................................................................................................................... 11. 1.6. The Main Research Questions to Defense ........................................................................ 13 1.7. Literature Review............................................................................................................. 15 1.8.. Chapter arrangement ..................................................................................................... 26. 政治大 2.1. “Public Diplomacy” and its basic concepts ...................................................................... 29 立 Chapter 2.. Theoretical Foundations of Public Diplomacy ............................................ 29. 2.2. Public Diplomacy in the US and Russia ........................................................................... 41. ‧ 國. 學. Chapter 3.. Media as a Non-state Actor in Public Diplomacy of Foreign States ........... 54. 3.1. Media as an Actor of the World Public Diplomacy ........................................................ 54. ‧. 3.2.. The concept of “Telediplomacy” in Contemporary International Relations ................ 64. sit. y. Nat. Chapter 4. The Position and Impacts of National News Networks (CNN and Russia Today) in Contemporary International Relations .............................................................. 75. al. er. io. 4.1. CNN as a Building Mechanism of International Relations .............................................. 75 4.2. Russia Today (RT) and its Role in International Relations .............................................. 89. n. v i n Chapter 5. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 101 Ch U i e h n gc 5.1. Research Findings ........................................................................................................... 101 5.2. Evaluation of CNN and RT: Merits and Demerits.......................................................... 104 5.3. Concluding Remarks....................................................................................................... 108 5.4. Policy Recommendation ................................................................................................. 110 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 112 Appendix – Analysis of CNN and RT Coverage of the Chemical Attack in Ghouta, Syria in 2013........................................................................................................................................ 130.

(5) iv. LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES. Figure 1. Definitions Influenced by Distinct Global Paragigms ............................................. 15 Figure 2. Fox News Has Most Trusted Coverage ................................................................... 87 Figure 3. TV: Trend and Functions (Russian Citizens’ Opinion) ........................................... 92 Figure 4. Problem Definition (the Relations Between Different Problems Reported by Each Channel) ................................................................................................................................. 105 Figure 5. Responsibility (the Relations Between Different Causes and Responsibility Reported by Each Channel) ................................................................................................... 106 Figure 6. Victims (the Relations Between Different Methods of Representing Victims’ Issue Reported by Each Channel) ................................................................................................... 107. 政治大. Figure 7. Sources (the Relations Between the Use of Different External Sources Reported by Each Channel) ........................................................................................................................ 107. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Table 1. Hard Power versus Soft Power ................................................................................. 17. sit. y. Nat. Table 2. Soft Power and Public Diplomacy ............................................................................ 35 Table 3. Non-state Actors of International Relations.............................................................. 63. io. n. al. er. Table 4. Leading Suppliers of News Information ................................................................... 64. i n U. v. Table 5. Merits and Demerits of CNN and RT ..................................................................... 108. Ch. engchi.

(6) v. List of Acronyms BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation CBS: Columbia Broadcasting System CIA: Central Intelligence Agency CNN: Cable News Network CW: Chemical Weapon FB: Facebook ICT: Information and Communication Technology IR: International Relations NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 治政大 OSCE: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe 立 PD: Public Diplomacy. OPCW: Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. ‧ 國. 學. PR: Public Relations. RF: Russian Federation. y. sit. io. US: United States. Nat. UN: United Nations. er. TV: Television. ‧. RT: Russia Today. USA: United States of America. n. al. Ch. USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics VK: Vkontakte WWW: World Wide Web. engchi. i n U. v.

(7) 1. Chapter 1. 1.1.. Introduction. Background and Purpose of the Research The modern world order faces transformations affected by the globalization processes. and large-scale cross-border activities. Information and communication technologies make it easier for the various population stratum to interact with each other both in financial and provisional terms. Nowadays, there is a rapid distribution of the popular social networks such as Facebook1, VK (or Vkontakte) (the Russian analog of FB)2, Twitter3, etc., which have turned out to be the exchange mechanisms of different kinds of information. These social networks provide a quick effect of perception and response to modern international processes among the political elite and general population. Under such circumstances, diplomatic. 政治大 In this regard, we can emphasize 立 two main levels of impact on foreign audiences. The. activities have become much more complex and diverse.. first one influences on the official structures, namely diplomats and politicians, while the. ‧ 國. 學. second one has an impact on public organizations, business structures and population of different countries (Dolinskiy, 2012). The last one we are used to calling "Public Diplomacy". ‧. (PD) 4 . PD has a significant effect not only on policy making process but also on the. to notice an essential role played by national news channels.. sit. y. Nat. formation of foreign opinion about the activities of a particular country. Here, it is necessary. al. er. io. The development of information technologies has a bearing on the labor market,. n. v i n C h that allow toUspend less time on searching and process is information and its availability engchi studying printed materials, and more time on social activities and data collection via the education system, and national security as well. One of the important components in this. Internet. In addition to printed media, it is necessary to mention the TV-media, which serves as 1. Facebook is a for-profit corporation and online social media and social networking service based in California, United States. The Facebook website (www.facebook.com) was launched in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg. 2 VK (originally VKontakte) is the largest European online social networking service. It is similar to the Facebook social Network. It is based in St. Petersburg. It is available in several languages, but is especially popular among Russian-speaking users. Like other social networks, VK allows users to message each other publicly or privately, to create groups, public pages and events, share and tag images, audio and video, and to play browser-based games. 3 Twitter is an online social networking service that enables users to send and read short 140-character messages called "tweets". Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco and has more than 25 offices around the world. 4 In international relations, public diplomacy or people's diplomacy, is the communication with foreign publics to establish a dialogue designed to inform and influence. This twrm was coined by Edmund Gullion. PD is practiced through a variety of instruments and methods ranging from personal contact and media interviews to the Internet and educational exchanges..

(8) 2. an instrument of states foreign policy to influence the dynamics of international processes. In order to outline TV-media distinctive features, media analysts presented the concept "telediplomacy". It is a new diplomatic paradigm, the development of which is related to the dynamics of information enlargement of the international community, as well as the evolution of communication technologies. Telediplomacy can be described as a product of the transformation of traditional diplomatic processes. According to Eytan Gilboa 5 , "diplomacy represents a communication system through which government officials express and protect the interests of their countries, state decisions and give ultimatums. Diplomatic communication process identifies the position of officials and state political lines, often held to enlist the support of other actors on the international scene" (Public Diplomacy and Global Communication, 2014).. 治政 the public concern. At the end of the century, because 大 of the globalization of electronic 立 journalism, active participation of social masses in the political process and democratization During the 20th century, diplomacy was about strict, official procedures, private from. ‧ 國. 學. of political society, diplomacy transformed into public process. Today it is difficult to underestimate the role of telediplomacy in the political discourse. Recently, state leaders and. ‧. diplomats have started to use the global television broadcast as a platform for proclamation of their political decisions. In this case, the function of global media networks "diplomatic. y. Nat. sit. mission" can be divided into two: the efficiency of transmitting messages on air and effect of. al. n. objectives of global television news, which are to: •. Ch. i n U. v. comprehensively inform about the numerous political, social and cultural processes in the world;. •. er. io. news content on the global audience in real time (Dolinskiy, 2012). These functions form the. engchi. provide a "platform" for performances of world leaders, including the opposition.. "Telediplomacy" has become not only an integral part of the political process but also a mechanism which forms and regulates this process. Due to this fact, we can stress, that national news networks have become full-fledged actors in world politics. This study is focused on the impact of national information networks on contemporary international relations. What are the main topics mass-media discussing today? It is all about the international terrorism, illegal drug and human trafficking, local and international wars, emergence and spread of new diseases, climate change and other issues. 5. Eytan Gilboa is Professor of International Communication and Director of the Center for International Communication at Bar-Ilan University. Since 2005, he is also a Visiting Professor of Public Diplomacy at USC..

(9) 3. Different countries use their own approaches to examine these problems, which lead to completely different interpretations of the general public on what is happening nowadays. It means that in each country there are different methods of supplying information materials, which are directly related to the foreign policy of any country. I decided to choose this topic after the terror attacks in Beirut6 and Paris7 (2015). I was amazed at how the global media reacted to two terrorist attacks in two different countries with a large number of victims. The terrorist attacks in Beirut, which took place one day before the terror attacks in Paris, were ignored by the major media, while the news concerning the Paris terroristic incidents was being broadcasted on global channels for a few days, including the option of supporting France by changing a profile picture on Facebook.8 It was about duality that media has created. Mass media has shed the light on certain countries,. 治政 the fact that the Western countries in their foreign policy大 strategy pay more attention to the 立 same western countries and less to developing ones. And Beirut was not an exception. That is. while thoroughly demolishing others. But, of course, the main reason for such actions lies in. ‧ 國. 學. why I set a goal to identify the features of national news networks impact on the formation and implementation of countries’ foreign policy strategies. The research is particularly. strategies in the United States and the Russian Federation.. sit. y. Nat. Significance of the Topic and Research Objectives. io. al. er. 1.2.. ‧. focused on CNN and Russia Today and their influence on the development of foreign policy. v i n global political climate change information C h has started to Uplay an increasingly important role. e nmedia g c h(fori example, satellite TV channels, such In recent years, a huge number of alternative n. The significance of the research topic is determined by the fact that in the context of. 6. On 12 November 2015, two suicide bombers detonated explosives in Bourj el-Barajneh, a southern suburb of Beirut, Lebanon, that is inhabited mostly by Shia Muslims. Reports of the number of deaths range from 37 to 43. Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) claimed responsibility for the attacks. The bombings were the worst terrorist attack in Beirut since the end of the Lebanese Civil War. They came twelve days after the bombing of a Russian airliner over the Sinai Peninsula killed 224 people and a day before attacks in Paris killed 136. ISIL claimed responsibility for these attacks as well. 7 The November 2015 Paris attacks (sometimes referred to as 11/13) were a series of coordinated terrorist attacks that occurred on Friday 13 November 2015 in Paris, France and the city's northern suburb, Saint-Denis. Beginning at 21:16 CET, three suicide bombers struck outside the Stade de France in Saint-Denis, during a football match. This was followed by several mass shootings, and a suicide bombing, at cafés and restaurants. Gunmen carried out another mass shooting and took hostages at a concert in the Bataclan theatre, leading to a stand-off with police. 8 Youssef, E. (2015). Let's Pray for Beirut the Same Way We’re Praying for Paris. Elephant Journal. Retrieved July 06, 2016, from http://www.elephantjournal.com/2015/11/lets-pray-for-beirut-the-same-way-werepraying-for-paris/.

(10) 4. as Arab AL-Jazeera9, AL-Arabia10, China’s CCTV11, the Iranian Press-TV12, Russia Today, the American CNN, etc.), have become a tool of "soft power". Having achieved a certain economic strength, some states, by means of these TV-channels, seek for a greater political significance. Some aim to bring their national interests to the international community, while others try to use the media resources for criticism of any crisis and to create the necessary for them background around a given international situation. Therefore, this paper pays great attention to the study of a balance of interests and power in the field of international information, as well as the possibility of national media participation in the formation of modern states "global" agenda. According to foreign media reports, in recent years the Russian Federation has increased its efforts in foreign policy (Zegonov, 2009; p.3). It seeks to participate in major. 治政大state, including Russia, needs to properly respond to current challenges, on the one hand, any 立 develop the mechanisms of responding to information influence beyond its territorial international political processes and actively promotes its own national interests. In order to. ‧ 國. 學. boundaries. On the other hand, governments need to interact with the world’s media for the formation of a positive image and promote states’ national interests.. ‧. When it comes to Russia, it should be noted that currently, the Russian influence on the information content of the leading media is quite limited, which means that Russia also. y. Nat. sit. cannot affect the agenda they create. For instance, the interpretation of the current events in. er. io. Ukraine does not correspond to the national interests of Russia. Another example is the Russian-Georgian conflict in 2008 13 , the light of which has undermined the international. al. n. prestige of the RF.. 9. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Al Jazeera is a Doha-based state-funded broadcaster. Initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel, Al Jazeera has since expanded into a network with several outlets, including the Internet and specialty TV channels in multiple languages. 10 Al Arabiya is a Saudi-owned pan-Arab television news channel broadcast in Modern Standard Arabic. 11 CCTV is the predominant state television broadcaster in the People's Republic of China. CCTV has a network of 45 channels broadcasting different programmes and is accessible to more than one billion viewers.Most of its programmes are a mixture of news, documentary, social education, comedy, entertainment, and drama, the majority of which consists of Chinese soap operas and entertainment. 12 Press TV (stylised PRESSTV) is a 24-hour English language news and documentary network, affiliated with Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB). IRIB is state-owned but independent of the Iranian government in its management, and is the only legal TV and radio broadcaster inside Iran. 13 The Russo-Georgian War was a war between Georgia, Russia and the Russian-backed self-proclaimed republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The war took place in August 2008 following a period of worsening relations between Russia and Georgia, both formerly constituent republics of the Soviet Union. The fighting took place in the strategically important Transcaucasia region, which borders the Middle East. It was regarded as the first European war of the 21st century..

(11) 5. The major powers set the goal to advance their national interests in the international arena, which requires an analysis of the activities of national news systems, their approaches to cooperation with other countries, and understand their methods of information influence on the local and foreign population. It is important to investigate the effect of news channels on the contemporary international relations. The research question of this study is can national news networks impact on the formation and implementation of countries’ foreign policy strategies? The aim of this study is to prove that national news networks, namely CNN14 and Russia Today15, have a great impact on formation and implementation of the foreign policy strategy of the USA and Russia and outline a comparison between them. The main research objectives are to:. 政治大. 1. Determine the nature and role of public diplomacy in contemporary international relations.. 立. 2. Identify the characteristics and differences of public diplomacy in the United. ‧ 國. 學. States and Russia.. 3. Determine the role of mass media in public diplomacy.. ‧. 4. Define the nature and significance of "telediplomacy" in the contemporary international relations.. y. Nat. sit. 5. Prove that CNN is a tool for promoting US foreign policy strategy, and is a. al. er. io. key element in the formation of modern international relations.. n. 6. Determine the impact of RT on shaping the image of Russia and contemporary. Ch. international relations.. 1.3.. engchi. i n U. v. Methodology and Empirical Base This study is aimed at understanding of television media influence on the world. politics. The qualitative method of analysis will be used for conducting of this research. It will consist of observations, comparative analysis, the study of scientific articles and news reports, as well as some documentary analysis. The study is also prepared on the basis of the comparative and systematic approaches to the analysis of international relations and the role. 14. The Cable News Network (CNN) is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel. 15 RT, originally Russia Today, is a television network funded by the Russian government. It operates cable and satellite television channels directed to audiences outside of Russia as well as providing Internet content in various languages, including Russian..

(12) 6. of public diplomacy in it. The systematic approach in international relations research field was developed by R. Aron (1966), B. Buzan (2000), A. Bogaturov (2002), K. Waltz (1979) and others. The research will follow the next steps: 1. Analysis of literature and other sources dedicated to public diplomacy. Determination of its basic concepts. 2. The study of Russian and American approaches to public diplomacy and its comparative analysis. 3. Texts collection related to national news networks and analysis of the concept of "Telediplomacy". 4. The study of CNN and Russia Today news reports and a comparative analysis. 治政大 into the following thematic The empirical basis of this study can be divided 立 categories: of the methods of their presentation and interpretation.. ‧ 國. 學. 1. Official documents of the Russian and the United States offices of state (the Ministries of Foreign Affairs, the Ministries of Defence, the Ministries and. ‧. Departments responsible for information policy and security), heralds of statistical yearbooks and annual reports.. y. Nat. sit. 2. Transcripts of speeches and statements by government leaders, public officers,. al. er. io. and diplomats.. n. 3. Publications of analytical centers, expert reports, mass media printed and online materials.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The theoretical basis of this paper is presented by the concept of force in international relations and analysis of the mass media as an actor of international relations, developed by J. Nye within the framework of his concept of "soft power"16. The study also analyzes the agenda of various websites, speeches and statements of the first persons on the public pages, constant monitoring of social networks.. 1.4. Theoretical Framework This study aims at determining the characteristics of impact of CNN and Russia Today as the national news networks on the formulation and implementation of the USA and 16. Soft power is a concept developed by Joseph Nye of Harvard University to describe the ability to attract and co-opt rather than by coercion (hard power), using force or giving money as a means of persuasion. Soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others through appeal and attraction. A defining feature of soft power is that it is noncoercive; the currency of soft power is culture, political values, and foreign policies..

(13) 7. Russia Federation foreign policy strategy. Therefore, the framework of this paper is based on four dependent variables. 1. Public Diplomacy In the context of changing the geopolitical picture of the world under the influence of diverse global processes, public diplomacy, as an important additional tool for achieving foreign policy goals of the state, becomes especially urgent. The term "PD" was first used in 1965 by E. Gullion, defining it as "a program funded by the government and aimed at informing and influencing public opinion in other countries" (Nikiforova & Mazurenko, 2013; p.188). Later this term was studied in detail by the American political scientist, the professor at Harvard University and author of the concept of "soft power" Joseph S. Nye. According to his assessment, public diplomacy is one of the most effective methods of building of. 治政 information resources and control over information flows. 大立 J. Nye distinguishes three dimensions of PD:. American "soft power" (Nye, 2004). The central role in its implementation belongs to the. ‧ 國. 學. 1. Daily communication, including the explanation of domestic and foreign policy decisions, and also the preparation for crisis response.. important political topics, like political or advertising campaigns.. Nat. y. ‧. 2. Strategic communication, which implies a focused discussion of the most. sit. 3. Development of strong relationships with key individuals by virtue of scholarships,. al. er. io. exchange programs, training, seminars, conferences and access to media channels.. n. Public diplomacy can be seen as actions aimed at building long-term relationships, the. Ch. i n U. v. protection of national foreign policy objectives and a better understanding of states’ values. engchi. and institutions abroad. PD promotes national interests and ensures national security by examining the attitude of foreign public opinion, informing them and impacting on those who form this attitude. The main objectives of public diplomacy are17: •. ensuring national interests and protection of the national foreign policy objectives, national security;. •. strengthening of the targeted impact on foreign audience, establishing a better understanding among people of different nationalities;. •. formation of the positive attitude of the foreign audiences toward goals and progress of the domestic and foreign policy implementation by a particular state;. 17. Krajnc, K. (2005). Public Diplomacy: Basic concepts and trends. Retrieved September 20, 2016, from http://www.ifimes.org/en/8020-public-diplomacy-basic-concepts-and-trends.

(14) 8. •. improving countries’ image and attractiveness.. 2. New Public Diplomacy or PD 2.0 "Public Diplomacy 2.0" is a relatively new trend in the framework of public diplomacy, representing the way of communicative impact on foreign audiences through Web 2.0 technologies (social networks, blogs, video sharing, etc.). New PD is greatly important in modern world politics due to the increasing number of World Wide Web (WWW)18 users and declining popularity of traditional media and rapid spread of new media. By the reason of globalization of economic interdependence among countries, foreign states have intensified their foreign policy actions in order to strengthen "soft power" in situations where the use of military action or economic coercion looks doubtful. In this. 政治大 can be seen as an extremely useful tool for foreign policy. 立 There is a number of key components of new PD that also can be found in the. context, PD 2.0, one of tasks of which is the formation of a positive image of a state abroad,. ‧ 國. 學. traditional public diplomacy (Cull, 2013, p.125-126). Firstly, those are the records of public opinion, where service agencies track the number of comments, tweets, likes, retweets, etc.. ‧. Secondly, it is the information campaign to shape a positive opinion in foreign countries. Thirdly, it is cultural diplomacy, which uses social media to convey information about the. y. Nat. sit. cultural heritage of peoples. Fourthly, it is an international broadcasting. And finally, it is the. al. er. io. establishment of closer ties between the foreign audience and population of a particular state. n. (or face-to-face contacts) with the help of social networking sites, such as "Facebook", "Google+"19, "Vkontakte".. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Mass media is one of the major subjects of the new PD 2.0, focusing on foreign audiences through television channels, broadcasters, news agencies, print media, which have its own accounts in social networks and microblogs (U.S. Department of State, 2008). Among the well-known TV channels involved in international broadcasting are British "BBC"20, American "CNN" and Russian "RT", etc. 18. The World Wide Web (WWW) is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by URLs, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. 19 Google+ (pronounced and sometimes written as Google Plus) is an interest-based social network that is owned and operated by Google. A Google+ User profile is a public visible account of a user that is attached to many Google properties. It includes basic social networking services like a profile photo, about section, background photo, cover photo, previous work and school history, interests, places lived and an area to post status updates. 20 The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, and is the world's oldest national broadcasting organization and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees, with over 20,950 staff in total, of whom 16,672 are in.

(15) 9. "Public Diplomacy 2.0" is a very promising direction in the framework of public diplomacy, whose value in states’ foreign policy in the nearest future will only increase. The development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and the growing popularity of social media in the world actualize the need of using the Web 2.0 technologies in diplomatic practice.. 3. Nation branding The problem of state image is not new to political science. Throughout world history, leaders were interested not only in building a strong nation, powerful ally, and center of the world but also in getting a certain attitude towards their countries. Development of political knowledge gave several approaches which help analyze processes of constructing a country’s. 治政大 of the state" is equivalent to social/cultural element to the "brand" category. Here the "image 立 the understanding of "the brand of the state.". image. The most interesting, in my opinion, is the branding approach that gives the value of. ‧ 國. 學. This concept unites a whole nation by the sense of national pride, stimulates the movement towards common ideals and goals, as well as contributes to the dissemination of. ‧. information about the state, which, first and foremost, has to improve the public perception about a particular country and, consequently, contributes to its development (Nagornyak,. sit. y. Nat. 2013; p. 157).. al. er. io. The process of transfer of the national brand, of course, is widespread and is done. n. through the channels that cover a large social audience. The most effective channels of this. Ch. i n U. v. kind of transmission are the foreign policy, investment policy, tourism, cinematography, 21. literature and, of course, television .. engchi. The process of forming a nation branding requires maximum coherence and consistency. Only one event, which is out from the general concept of the branding, can lead to the destruction of a holistic image of the country. For this reason, the process of the public broadcasting brand is always preceded by analytical work, which allows figuring out attitude towards a state in the international society and finding out the reasons for the formation of positive and negative opinions. In general, the national brand is determined by the perception of any country based on six factors: tourist attraction, human capital, quality of the exported. public sector broadcasting; including part-time, flexible as well as fixed contract staff, the total number is 35,402. 21 Teslik, L. H. (2007). Nation Branding Explained. Retrieved September 20, 2016, from http://www.cfr.org/diplomacy-and-statecraft/nation-branding-explained/p14776.

(16) 10. goods, government equity, the attraction of culture, sport and investment environment, and the country’s attractiveness as a place of residence. (Anholt, 2003, p. 226) 4. Nation-state’s control over media There is a process of creating a huge global communication system. It involves the national governments, international agencies, multinational media corporations, nongovernmental human rights organizations, etc. This help to build a global media market, or "an increasingly interdependent site for the development and application of formal and informal rules that shape common narratives, a space in which ideologies compete and forge allegiances that ultimately determine the persistence of governments and nations themselves, and an arena where imagery becomes a supplement or substitute for force" (Monroe, 2002,. 治政大 indifferent to the mass media, to the information and mass media. States cannot further remain 立 mainly because information is becoming a source of power. p.315). One of the consequences of this process is rethinking of governments’ role in relation. ‧ 國. 學. In this regard, national states have developed two types of response to the information flows. Firstly, they protect its information space from external intrusion. Secondly, nation-. ‧. states try to have an impact on the information environment and media structures of other states. A state’s attitude to the information field is determined by its history and present day,. y. Nat. sit. depended on the degree of development of democratic institutions in the past and present, the. al. er. io. level of media communication privatization, the influence of religious tradition, the technical. n. base of media and the scale of implementation of new technologies (p. 317).. Ch. i n U. v. New technologies, speed, scale and nature of their information implementation have a. engchi. huge influence on the process of providing information, which sometimes lead to countries’ loss of control over it. Other countries, on the contrary, because of using such technologies, successfully monitor domestic information and strengthen their superiority with respect to those states, which consume their information products22. Nation states can also control the information sector through the adoption of certain laws, entering into negotiations and making appropriate arrangements, implementation of technologies needed for control and the use of force. Sometimes a supranational control can also take place, what is also can be called as "information intervention", the measures taken by a group of states or the international community to change the content of the information 22. Ogunsola, L. (2005). Information and Communication Technologies and the Effects of Globalization: TwentyFirst Century "Digital Slavery" for Developing Countries--Myth or Reality? Retrieved September 20, 2016, from http://southernlibrarianship.icaap.org/content/v06n01/ogunsola_l01.htm.

(17) 11. media in any country if it is deemed incompatible with the interests of the international community. Based on the Realism theory in international relations, an ideal situation for any state is the control over public opinion. In this situation, governments try to build a hierarchical system for control over social opinion in order to prevent civil unrest against the existing political order. Such systems operate in countries with a totalitarian regime of power. Since this study is focused on the research of CNN and RT, we may note that there is no total control over the media in the US. Some American sources of media can openly criticize the actions of the government and their political course. Despite the fact, there are the widespread opinions that Russia is a totalitarian state, where mass media is tightly controlled by the government, no one still can confidently assert that it is true. According to. 治政大of government" . Article 32.1 democratic federal law-bound State with a republican form 立 states that "Citizens of the Russian Federation shall have the right to participate in managing Article 1 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation "The Russian Federation - Russia is a 23. ‧ 國. 學. state affairs both directly and through their representatives"24. Thus, a civil society in Russia does exist, and despite the fact that currently there is government control of the media, we. ‧. cannot call it as a total one.. Thus, public sentiments, especially among socially mobile population groups. y. Nat. sit. (students and people at the age of 35-40 years old having neither spouse nor children) may. al. er. io. have an influence on the government control over the media.. n. Almost all states conduct purposeful foreign policy in the information sphere,. Ch. i n U. v. especially in the case of a global fight against terrorism. The government simply cannot. engchi. afford to remain passive: they must define its place in the global information and media environment, and to use this environment for personal purposes. Public opinion to certain international events and its influence on changing the political course of local governments are the independent variables.. 1.5.. Scope/limit The second chapter "Theoretical Foundations of Public Diplomacy" covers the. period from the mid-1960s up to the present day (2016). Those years have played a very significant role not only in the foreign policy of different countries but also in the discourse 23. The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (1993). Chapter 1. The Fundamentals of the Constitutional System. Retrieved October 22, 2016, from http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-02.htm 24 The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (1993). Chapter 2. Rights and Freedoms of Man and Citizen (1993). Retrieved October 22, 2016, from http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm.

(18) 12. on the concept of traditional diplomacy. In 1965, to be more specific, the former U.S. diplomat Edmund Gullion for the first time outlined the term of Public Diplomacy, where he identified differences between these two terms. For example, traditional diplomacy is carried out through people, specialized in international affairs, such as diplomats, politicians, and intelligence service officers. Public diplomacy, on the contrary, is the means by which the government of one country tries to influence societies of another one, which, in turn, can have an impact on their own governments. The third chapter "Media as a Non-state Actor in Public Diplomacy of Foreign States" is described from the period of the Cold War to the present day (2016) as well. The Cold War is not chosen by chance. In 1946, Winston Churchill's famous speech in the US city of Fulton25 essentially declared the beginning of the Cold War between the countries of. 治政大curtain". The Cold War was the camp, on the other. Former allies were divided by the "iron 立 political, economic, military and ideological confrontation. When disagreements between the. Western Europe and the United States on the one hand, and the countries of the socialist. ‧ 國. 學. superpowers are significant, they compete for the same sphere of influence, considering each other as a potential enemy, but they are still not at war. In this case, the ideological struggle. ‧. comes to the fore, where media plays a role of strategic levers of countries foreign policy. Here, the Cold War and the media activities of the opposing sides are considered as a classic. y. Nat. sit. example of information warfare. In order to understand the importance of it, we can rely on. al. er. io. some researchers’ opinion, such as S. Kara-Murza, who believes that the collapse of the. n. Soviet Union was caused not only by the ambitions of national elites and economic reasons. Ch. i n U. v. but also by information methods, using by the Western countries, which contributed to the. engchi. changes in domestic political processes, ended by the Perestroika and the collapse of the Soviet Union (Kara-Murza, 2000). And the fourth chapter "The Position and Impacts of National News Networks (CNN and Russia Today) in Contemporary International Relations" covers the period from 1980 until the present day (2016). The 1980s are considered as a push in the development process of cable and satellite television. It differs from the traditional, terrestrial television in the way, where a viewer does not only receive information but also communicate with the distributors of this information. Moreover, 1980 has brought a new 25. This speech may be regarded as the most important Churchill delivered as Leader of the Opposition (19451951). It contains certain phrases- "the special relationship," "the sinews of peace " - which at once entered into general use, and which have survived. But it is the passage on "the iron curtain" which attracted immediate international attention, and had incalculable impact upon public opinion in the United States and in Western Europe. Russian historians date the beginning of the Cold War from this speech..

(19) 13. wave in the ways of presenting information. That year CNN was launched as the first news network with the concept of a 24-hour news broadcast, where the audience can become witnesses of international processes and take part in their change. This thesis is limited to the research of two international news networks, CNN and Russia Today. These channels can be interpreted as levers of implementation of American and Russian public diplomacy. They have the strong news information base supply and powerful influence on the foreign public, through the concept of a 24-hour news broadcast. Using these two powerful mechanisms of building foreign policy agenda, I would like to determine the characteristics of their impact on the formation and implementation of the foreign policy strategy of the USA and Russia.. 1.6. The Main Research Questions to Defense. 政治大. 1. Since its emergence in the political discourse, public diplomacy has undergone a. 立. big evolutional change. In the beginning, this term was a synonym for propaganda, but today. ‧ 國. 學. it implicates the development of a multi-channel system of communication between societies in different countries.. ‧. 2. The current US PD main aim is to get foreign audience’s support for American actions in solving international problems. But despite the fact that US public diplomacy is. Nat. sit. y. one of the most influential and powerful in the world, but due to the negative attitude in the. io. er. Middle East, the USA PD is in a crisis now. Therefore, the local government is trying to change the mechanisms of PD to improve the US image not only in this region but also all. n. al. i n U. v. around the world. Russian public diplomacy develops effectively and successfully copes with. Ch. engchi. the tasks assigned to it, but the overall coordination and feedback system are not optimal. Unfortunately, the Russian PD predominantly remains as a traditional public diplomacy, because of the lack of state support, the absence of ongoing programs for public diplomacy, proper finance, and incomprehension of the real subject of PD. 3. Due to the evolution of the global communication context (with cheapening of communication technologies and the proliferation of the Internet), the great powers are not the only actors able to disseminate information throughout the world. As a consequence, the ability of each individual actor to influence the global information space has decreased. In a changeable environment, states are forced to involve non-state actors in their public diplomacy, such as mass media, including national news networks. 4. For the purpose of the massive impact on the world public opinion, in addition to the traditional media modern states use the online communities and social networks..

(20) 14. Synthesis of traditional media with the "new" media and Internet technologies has led to the formation of national news networks, which do not only broadcast the information, but also creates it. In contemporary international politics, national news networks are not only the independent actors but also the tools of promoting national interests in the foreign policy of individual states. "Telediplomacy" is a kind of paradiplomacy26 in which "diplomatic mission" of global media networks is implemented by the following functions: •. rapid transfer of messages in real time;. •. the impact of news content to a global audience in real time;. •. diplomatic mediation;. •. influence on political decision-making;. •. active lobbying of political strategies of a state.. 政治大 5. Current US foreign policy is increasingly focused on the information aspect, where 立 the influential "branded media", including "CNN", plays a significant role in promotion of the. ‧ 國. 學. States foreign policy. Being nominally non-state, CNN, however, not only promotes "an objective picture of what is happening", but also a particular interpretation of certain events. ‧. corresponded to political agenda of the US government.. 6. In contrast to "CNN", "Russia Today" does not hide its connection with the Russian. y. Nat. sit. government. Thus, it is the official lever of the Russia’s position toward the foreign audience,. al. er. io. which offers an alternative interpretation of world events. "RT" as a broadcasting system of. v i n C hthe preparation andUmaking foreign policy decisions; involved in the areas responsible for engchi n. the Russian foreign policy is oriented not only to a wide audience but also on the people. formation of its own attractive "image for others", emphasizing the distinctive characteristics. of Russia that make it open to the rest of the world in economy, sport, culture, citizen relationships issues. Information work of Russia Today is focused on the formation of Russia’s image not only as a state with its own principled stance on all international issues but also as a country with exceptional national characteristics.. 26. Paradiplomacy refers to what on could describe as a “foreign policy capacity” of sub-state entities, their participation, independent of their metropolitan state, in the international arena in pursuit of their own specific international interests. This is a conceptually and practically challenging development — conceptually because the discipline of international relations does not normally consider sub-state entities as subjects of international relations; and practically because states’ claim to external sovereignty, their unique right to engage with other players in the international arena, is, in a sense, hollowed out and perhaps fatally undermined if they have to share this essential prerogative of stateness..

(21) 15. 1.7. Literature Review 1.. Public Diplomacy. 1.1. Public Diplomacy There are lots of books about the study of PD. Each author interprets this term by his own way. For instance, Christopher Ross considers public diplomacy as "a public face of a traditional diplomacy" (Hess, Kalb, 2003; p.224). In "Media, Terrorism, and Theory" book we can see that PD differs from traditional diplomacy, because it involves interaction not only with governments but primarily with nongovernmental individuals and organizations. Furthermore, public diplomacy activities often present many differing views represented by private American individuals and organizations in addition to official government views (Kavoori, 2006; p.150).. 政治大 building relationships: understanding 立 the needs of other countries, cultures, and peoples;. Mark Leonard (2002) in his "Public Diplomacy" stresses that in fact PD is about. communicating different points of view; correcting misperceptions; looking for areas where. ‧ 國. 學. we can find common cause. He defines impacts that public diplomacy can achieve. For instance, it can:. ‧. increase people’s familiarity with one’s country;. •. engage people with one’s country through strengthening ties, tourism and. y. Nat. •. io. enhance people’s perception of one’s country through creating positive. er. •. sit. education, including the cultural one;. al. n. v i n C h of definitions theUconcept with three distinct phases of In the post-Gullion period analysts engchi. apprehension, getting others to see issues of global importance from the same perspective. the definitions and conceptualizations of PD (Auer & Srugies, 2013; p.9). Figure 1. Definitions Influenced by Distinct Global Paradigms Cold War (1945-1989). Post-Cold War (1989-2001). 9/11 (2001-present). persuasion. understanding by the foreign public. mutual understanding. Source: Auer & Srugies, 2013. PD research can also be done through characterizing its three dimensions, such as 1) building long-term relationships with populations overseas to win recognition of one’s country, 2) reacting to news events as they occur in a way that suits one’s state strategic goals,.

(22) 16. and 3) creating a news agenda through activities and events which are designed to reinforce core messages and influence perceptions of other countries (Snow, Taylor, 2009; p. 74). Even though public diplomacy differs from advertising, education, branding, journalism, and public relations, it still imports methods and norms from civil society. Bruce Gregory in his "Public Diplomacy and National Security" (2006) states that "PD operates though actions, relationships, images, and words in three-time frames: 24/7 news streams, medium range campaigns on high-value policies, and long-term engagement. Its tools range from electronic media to cultural diplomacy to “the last three feet” of personal communication". Many scientists and analytics of modern political science and diplomacy tried to form the basic principles of PD. Many of them believe that one of the most successful works. 治政大 strategy for public diplomacy formulated six principles, which help to build a comprehensive 立 to promote the national brand of any country (Borodina, 2010): belongs to Christopher Ross. Based on historical experience and his own achievements, he. ‧ 國. 學. •. providing an understanding of the foreign policy to the audience in its real. form, not a form others used to believe in; explaining the policy, showing its rationality and justifying its fundamental. •. appealing to the international community by consistent, truthful and. y. sit. io. al. Ch. through the print and electronic media; •. v. working not only with narrow target segments but also with the broad mass. n. •. Nat. convincing methods;. er. values;. ‧. •. engchi. i n U. interaction with a variety of partners to reach new target audience: private. sector, corporations, non-profit organizations, communities; •. participation in international communication and exchange programs.. We cannot study PD without its relation to the foreign policy of a state. In this case, this is not only about the achievement of national interests, but also about how to guarantee national security. Here one can mention about the identity of the state, its activities, interests and values, and their status in the international arena. All these categories should be included in the agenda of state’s foreign policy and its priorities. "States have their interests, including strategic, geopolitical, economic, or commercial. In addition, they want to have a certain position in the international community to gain some diplomatic influence" (Peterkova, 2008; p. 8).

(23) 17. According to Tuch (1990; p. 9) in order to reach all these goals, it is necessary to understand that public diplomacy is not just a unidirectional stream of information to influence the foreign public. It has two ways where the success of positive acceptance of values or ideas, representing a state, requires a primal understanding of ideas, culture, and tradition of the society, what public diplomacy is aimed to. 1.2. Soft Power In the XXI century, the instruments of indirect actions, such as the policy of "soft power" are becoming increasingly popular. The term was coined in 1990 by Joseph Nye in his work "Bound to Lead the Changing Nature of American" and developed in "The Means to Success in World Politics". Nye divides "power" into "hard" and "soft." By "hard power". 治政大 to achieve objectives based on economic power (Nye, 2004; p.25). "Soft power" is the ability 立 the voluntary participation of allies, rather than by coercion (p.27). According to the. scientist understands the capacity for coercion by means of one country’s military and. ‧ 國. 學. ANNALS journal, here are the main differences between hard and soft power: Table 1. Hard Power versus Soft Power. io. Government policies. al. n. Resources. Force; threats. Ch. i n U. v. Sanctions; payments. engchi. Coercive diplomacy; war; alliance. Aid; bribes. Soft Power Attraction; agendasetting; co-optation Values; culture; policies; institutions Public diplomacy; bilateral and multilateral diplomacy. y. Inducement; coercion. er. Coercion; deterrence. sit. Nat. Behaviors. ‧. Type. Hard Power Military Economic. Source: The ANNALS, 2008; p.61. Traditional sources of "soft power" is "culture" (its appeal in other countries), "political values" and "foreign policy". But there is another approach, according to which "soft power" can be subdivided into the following components: economic, political and cultural influence (Radikov, Leksyutina, 2012; p 22). "Soft power" as a force in international relations is always associated with diplomacy, where each state aims to represent its people, their national interests, and culture on the international stage. Therefore, in theoretical and practical terms, much attention is paid to.

(24) 18. such concepts as "public diplomacy" (Matveenko, Galaeva, 2015; p. 166). Here, PD is an activity used for the development and accumulation potential of "soft power"(p. 168). 1.3. New Public Diplomacy or PD 2.0 Recently, the international communication space has changed dramatically, and therefore the government began to look for new forms of public diplomacy. This led to appearance of the term "new public diplomacy" or "PD 2.0", focused on intercultural dialogue and the establishment of an atmosphere of trust and cooperation between peoples in different countries, thus creating a favorable environment for interstate cooperation and for cooperation between States and non-state actors in other areas through Web 2.0 technologies27, such as social networks, blogs, video sharing, etc.. 政治大. Because of such changes Cull, N. J. identified key shifts in the practice of public diplomacy. For example, he stressed that the international actors have become nontraditional. 立. and the mechanisms to communicate with world publics, used by these actors, have moved. ‧ 國. 學. into new, real-time global technologies (especially the Internet). There is no place for propaganda in PD anymore. Now states pay more attention to nation branding and "soft. ‧. power". The actor-to-people communication during the Cold War-era has shifted to peopleto-people contact for mutual enlightenment, with the international actor playing the role of. Nat. sit. y. facilitator. Nowadays, the prime task of the new public diplomacy is characterized as. io. er. "relationship building" (2009; p. 13).. N. Cull also identified several characteristics of the new PD (Cull, 2013; p 6.). Firstly,. n. al. i n U. v. it is based on the ability of ICT to facilitate the establishment of relationships within social. Ch. engchi. networks and online communities. Secondly, it depends on user-generated content, for example, comments from social networks and blogs. And finally, its operation is built on the exchange of information, and not on the transmission of data messages from the top downward, what was typical for vertical networks in the era of the traditional public diplomacy. What is more, basic subjects of "public diplomacy 2.0" are foreign ministries and related institutions, some politicians and public figures and also mass media. Political parties 27. A Web 2.0 site may allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to the first generation of Web 1.0-era websites where people were limited to the passive viewing of content. Examples of Web 2.0 include social networking sites and social media sites (e.g., Facebook), blogs, wikis, folksonomies ("tagging" of websites and links), video sharing sites (e.g., YouTube), hosted services, Web applications ("apps"), collaborative consumption platforms, and mashup applications, that allow users to blend the digital audio from multiple songs together to create new music..

(25) 19. and public organizations, which are able to actively influence public opinion abroad, also play a significant role in PD 2.0. (Marchukov, 2014; p.107). 2. Mass Media, its functions, fields of concern, models and methods Media has a huge number of functions, which are detailed in "Media as factors in world politics". The most common ones are the information and manipulation of the internal and external public; dissemination of ideology; socialization and education of the population; the audience entertainment; maintenance and regulation of relations between the institutions of government and society… (Fokina, 2013; p.61) Fokina also argues that modern democracies have developed three fields of concern of media in world politics (p.62). The first one talks about mass media as an instrument of. 治政 is about media as a social institution, and its main task is大 to express an opinion on the most 立 important foreign policy decisions and actions. The last one describes media as a corporation. political power, where one of the main purposes is to carry out propaganda. The second one. ‧ 國. 學. or "influence institute".. Models and methods of mass media work with the state and public are described in. ‧. the article "Political communication" (Petrunin, 2004, p. 213-214). The author identifies three models, such as "free market ideas", "social responsibility" and "democratic representation".. y. Nat. sit. In the first model, the main objective of any state is to guarantee citizens’ access to. al. er. io. information. The second model envisages that the media should fulfill certain obligations to. n. society, while the third model focuses on the content of media materials. 3. Propaganda. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. In order to understand the means and objectives of PD, there is a need to analyze the term "propaganda". This paper examines the definitions given by not only foreign authors but also by the Russian ones. For instance, the Russian professor Dolinskiy (2011) sees propaganda as deliberate manipulation with symbols, words, gestures, flags, monuments, music or actions of some people in relation to beliefs, values and behaviors of others (p. 275). It is known that the term "public diplomacy" appeared in American political science in the mid-1960s by replacing the negative associations with the word "propaganda". The Western analytic Welch (1999) considers propaganda as "the deliberate attempt to influence the opinions of the audience through the transmission of ideas and values for the specific purpose, consciously designed to serve the interest of the propagandists and their political.

(26) 20. masters either directly or indirectly" (p. 24). Propaganda is also a way to present states’ foreign policy to the external world using the media (Naveh, 2002; p. 9). There are three types of propaganda, white, black and grey. The white and black propaganda are the most significant ones and are discussed in a book "Global communications, international affairs and the media since 1945" (p. 159). 4. Information warfare In the context of the study of the national news networks impact on international relations, it is also necessary to note such thing like information warfare. There are many methods and ways in which the political forces sway the world community to one direction or another. One of the most common and advanced information technologies in our time is an. 治政 objectives, and weapons than previous wars, thus they are大 more dangerous because they are 立 able to "erase" the historical memory of the people.. information manipulation or the so-called information war. This war has different rules,. ‧ 國. 學. Currently, the concept of "information warfare" is defined differently. For example, information wars are the informative activities undertaken by political entity (i.e. a state) to. ‧. weaken or even destroy another political entity (Ivanov, 2013; p. 277).. Another Russian analyst Panarin (2012) considers such kind of war as the most. y. Nat. sit. socially dangerous form of information warfare, carried out by violent means and methods of. er. al. n. strategic tasks (p 223).. io. influence on the information-psychological sphere of the enemy with the purpose of solving. Ch. i n U. v. Objectives of the information war, such as control of the information space to conduct. engchi. information attacks on the enemy and increase the overall effectiveness of the armed forces with the help of the universal use of military information functions, as well as the main features of the information war are described in the Dementieva’s article (2014; p. 15). 5. Telediplomacy 5.1. The concept of telediplomacy Television media is a tool of foreign policy, which may impact on the dynamics of international processes. The concept of "telediplomacy" originated as a product of the transformation of traditional diplomatic processes (Robinson, 2001; p.534). Nowadays, telediplomacy plays an important role, due to leaders of states and diplomats use the global television broadcast as a platform for the declaration of their decisions. Objectives of.

(27) 21. telediplomacy are to informed about various political, social and cultural processes of the world and provide a "platform" for performances of world leaders. There are specific conditions under which the global TV can influence the political decision-making. First of all, the degree of influence of global television networks is determined by the scale of events. In particular, large international crises and acts of terrorism always dominate the information space and require an urgent response of world governments. Secondly, the rate of development of the situation also largely determines the "level of influence" on decisions, especially in a situation of "political or power vacuum" 28 , when political leaders are unable to monitor the development of events, choose a clear political line in relation to a particular emergency situation. In addition, an event should capture the attention of a wide audience. A collection of operational information raises a problem, which. 治政大main tool of influence on public is a serious risk – if an event is out of political control, the 立 society will be global television networks. requires a rapid response of the political leaders (Larionov, 2015; p. 114). In this case, there. ‧ 國. 學. The significant element of the activities of global television networks is their potential to influence the development of international politics. They can be summarized in several. ‧. points. Firstly, the international news content of the global television forms the agenda. This can help politicians and diplomats to prioritize facts when developing their own agenda. In. y. Nat. sit. this regard, it is noteworthy that in most government and diplomatic institutions TV are tuned. al. er. io. to receive information from BBC World and CNN channels (Ammon, 2001; p131-132).. n. Another object of global television news is the definition of criteria of the particular events.. Ch. i n U. v. Indeed, the sequence of the reporting facts can significantly shift the focus of perception of events.. engchi. Thus, the activities of global television networks represent a field for active political lobbying strategies of any state. Careful attention of governments to the television networks has marked by the significance of the latest contemporary political processes and the ability to form public moods. Consequently, global television can be considered as a full member of the political and diplomatic processes.. 5.2. 28. CNN effect. In political science and political history, the term power vacuum is an analogy between a physical vacuum, to the political condition when someone has lost control of something and no one has replaced them. The situation can occur when a government has no identifiable central power or authority. The physical analogy suggests that in a power vacuum, other forces will tend to "rush in" to fill the vacuum as soon as it is created, perhaps in the form of an armed militia or insurgents, military coup, warlord or dictator..

(28) 22. Mass media have an enormous influence over the public. "From advertising to news broadcasts to nightly sitcoms, people are continuously bombarded with opinions and information" (Cohen, Gunther, Talor & Tsfati, 2009). Cable News Network or CNN began its broadcasting on June 1st, 1980. Since the beginning of the Gulf War in 1991, CNN was the only channel reported (and broadcasted live) air attacks on Iraq all 24 hours. Other TV channels worldwide used CNN unique footage with its logo for the relay. Another scenario of using such model of translation was used again during the 9/11 terrorist attacks29. Being under pressure of the television channels, reporters, and people, political leaders have to make decisions quickly and efficiently. Thus, the ability of global television networks to influence political decision-making and, often, to change the. 政治大. course of events, was called the "CNN effect".. It is worth to remark that researchers of the CNN effect use different definitions to. 立. describe this process. Seib (2002; p.27) states that the CNN effect "is presumed to illustrate. ‧ 國. 學. the dynamic tension that exists between real-time television news and policymaking, with the news having the upper hand in terms of influence". Feist (2001, p. 713) notes: "The CNN. ‧. effect is a theory that compelling television images, such as images of a humanitarian crisis, cause U.S. policymakers to intervene in a situation when such an intervention might. Nat. sit. y. otherwise not be in the U.S. national interest." According to Schorr (1998), the CNN effect is. io. er. "the way breaking news affects foreign policy decisions," while Livingston and Eachus (1995, p. 413) defined it "as elite decision makers" loss of policy control to news media".. n. al. i n U. v. Babak Bahador (2007), a media scholar, describes four types of the CNN effect: the. Ch. engchi. agenda-setting effect, the impediment effect, the challenging effect, and the accelerant effect. These categories define options of mass media impact on government policy and public opinion. First, the accelerant effect refers to the media’s ability to fasten policy decisions. The impediment effect outlines how media can influence on military strategy. The third category, the agenda-setting effect, describes the procedure of how the news agenda can create a policy plan or change government’s course of action. The final type refers to news ability to force making decisions in order to alleviate human suffering during crises and wars that sometimes seem irrelevant to the national interest. In other words, CNN effect may not only fasten policy decision making but also elaborate a policy agenda and become an impediment to the achievement of desired policy 29. The September 11 attacks (also referred to as 9/11) were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11, 2001..

(29) 23. goal. Significant examples of the CNN effect can be found in making political decisions related to genocide in Rwanda or Darfur massive genocide30, the war in Persian Gulf, 9/11 attacks, etc. One should also point out that the CNN effect also represents a conflict of the pressure of public opinion on leaders who feel that they should make decisions based on expertise and rationality, rather than the news cycle (Livingston, Eachus, 1995; p. 414). Therefore, this effect has both supporters and opponents. More about them will be discussed in this thesis. Nowadays this term refers not only to the CNN information influence but also to other international news agencies as well. 6. CNN. 治政 CNN was the first in the world proposed the concept 大 of a 24-hour news broadcast. 立the entire world. Cultural, political philosophy, mass Subsequently, it reflected on ‧ 國. 學. communication and international relations experts acknowledged that CNN has become not only the bearer of the American-English language but also a symbol, such as Hollywood and. ‧. McDonald’s, of the American penetration to all continents (Barber 2006; p.103). The New Encyclopaedia Britannica stresses the role of CNN in conducting the US influence on the. Nat. sit. y. process of globalization: "CNN has become an icon of globalization, showing the whole. io. er. world to the US style of television news".31. Since the second half of the 80-s, CNN began to expand its audience in the world. It. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. conducted live broadcasts from the Philippines, events supporting the opposition to the 32. engchi. dictator Marcos ; showed a report about the shooting of students in Beijing Tyanyanmyn area33; transfer of Soviet troops in Afghanistan34 and the collapse of the Berlin Wall35. Since 30. The War in Darfur is a major armed conflict in the Darfur region of Sudan, that began in February 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebel groups began fighting the government of Sudan, which they accused of oppressing Darfur's non-Arab population. The government responded to attacks by carrying out a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Darfur's non-Arabs. This resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of civilians and the indictment of Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity by the International Criminal Court. 31 The New Enciclopedia Britannica. V. 20, 2005, p. 134. 32 Ferdinand Marcos was a Filipino politician and kleptocrat. He ruled as dictator under martial law from 1972 until 1981. While his regime started an unprecedented number of infrastructure projects and monuments, it also became infamous for its corruption, extravagance and brutality. 33 Tiananmen protests – a series of student-led popular demonstrations protests which took place in spring 1989 in Beijing. The protests were forcibly suppressed by leaders who ordered the military to enforce martial law in the country's capital. The crackdown that initiated on June 3–4 became known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre as troops with assault rifles and tanks inflicted casualties on unarmed civilians trying to block the military's advance towards Tiananmen Square in the heart of Beijing..

媒體在公衆外交的貢獻 及國家新聞網對現代國際關係的影響 – 以CNN和Russia Today為例 - 政大學術集成

媒體在公衆外交的貢獻及國家新聞網對現代國際關係的影響 – 以CNN和Russia Today為例 - 政大學術集成