路邊停車格的土地使用效率 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學應用經濟與社會發展英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program of Applied Economics and Social Development College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University 碩士論文政治 Master’s Thesis 大. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 路邊停車格的土地使用效率 Land Use Efficiency in Curb Parking. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Student: 張毓庭 Advisor: 林子欽博士. 中華民國 2018 年 8 月 August 2018. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(3) 路邊停車格的土地使用效率 Land Use Efficiency in Curb Parking Student: 張毓庭 Advisor: 林子欽. 立. 政治大國立政治大學. ‧ 國. 學. 應用經濟與社會發展英語碩士學位學程. ‧. 碩士論文. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. A Thesis. i n U. v. e n g Master’s Submitted to International Program of Applied chi Economics and Social Development National Chengchi University I. 中華民國 2018 年 8 月 August 2018. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.


(5) Abstract Ample debates about curb parking planning have taken place to examine how parking fees may eliminate the traffic congestion. However, seldom did they notice wrong pricing may further bring about the inefficient use of land. Curb spaces remain forever vacant, putting into no use anyway. The purpose of this study is to explore the current inefficiency in curb parking in Taipei. Eventually, we attempt to find out the potential solutions to improve land use efficiency.. 政治大 of land remained all-time 立 vacant in the years 2016 and 2017. It is unwise to put a A descriptive analysis of existing curb parking indicates a total of 56,925 square meters. ‧ 國. 學. tremendous amount of land in curb parking, earning merely 0.147 percent of the return. The empirical analysis in this study elucidated why the government should customize. ‧. parking planning for different districts. Dynamic parking fee should be implemented in. y. Nat. er. io. sit. areas in which on-street parking is always fully occupied. Every dollar decrease in parking fees increases 1.246 cars parked on curb spaces on average. Meanwhile, for. al. n. v i n those areas filled with forever curb spaces, urban planners should cut the quantity Cempty hen gchi U supplied to improve land use efficiency at its root. In conclusion, this research offers an innovative land-use aspect to improve the current parking situation by tailor-made parking planning. We believe that this line of research may serve as a reference for government’s parking plan in the future. Key words: on-street parking, curb parking, land use efficiency, parking fee, performance pricing. i. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.


(7) Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction................................................................................................ 1 1.1 General Background Information ........................................................................ 1 1.2 Purpose of Research ............................................................................................. 4 1.3 Research Questions .............................................................................................. 5 1.4 Research Methodology ........................................................................................ 6 1.5 Outline.................................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2 Literature Review ...................................................................................... 9. 政治大 2.2 Pricing the Curb Parking .................................................................................... 14 立 2.1 Curb Parking ........................................................................................................ 9. ‧ 國. 學. 2.3 Summary ............................................................................................................ 17 Chapter 3 Current Conditions of Curb Parking in Taipei .................................... 19. ‧. 3.1 Review of Curb Parking Standards .................................................................... 19. sit. y. Nat. 3.2 Land Use Efficiency in Curb Spaces ................................................................. 25. io. er. Chapter 4 Research Methodology ............................................................................ 35. al. 4.1 Research Methods .............................................................................................. 36. n. v i n Ch 4.2 Research Data .................................................................................................... 38 engchi U 4.3 Research Design................................................................................................. 57. Chapter 5 Empirical Analysis ................................................................................... 63 5.1 How Parking Fees Affect the Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking? ............... 63 5.2 How Parking Fees Affect the Vacancy Rate of Curb Parking? ......................... 73 5.3 Summary ............................................................................................................ 78 Chapter 6 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 81 References ................................................................................................................... 84. iii. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(8) List of Figures Figure 1.1 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................ 8 Figure 3.1 Six Strategies in Taipei City Ten-Year Parking Plan ................................. 22 Figure 3.2 Number of Parking Spaces in Taipei (2008-2017) ..................................... 27 Figure 3.3 The Coverage of Parking Fees in Taipei (June 2015-May 2018) .............. 31 Figure 4.1 The Divide of Northern and Southern Districts ......................................... 39 Figure 4.2 Traffic Zones in Each District .................................................................... 40. 政治大 Figure 4.4 The Types of立 Parking Spaces Include in the Parking Supply .................... 44 Figure 4.3 Spatial Distribution of Curb Spaces in Daan District ................................. 42. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 4.5 The Types of Parking Spaces Include in the Parking Demand .................. 45 Figure 4.6 Data Processing Flow Chart ....................................................................... 56. ‧. Figure 4.7 Indirect Relationship Between Curb Parking Fees and Occupancy Rate... 57. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Figure 5.1 Squared Residuals vs. Fitted Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking .......... 64 Figure 5.2 Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking vs. Curb Parking Fee ...................... 69. al. n. v i n Figure 5.3 Histogram of Quantity Parking ................................... 69 C h Demanded of Curb engchi U Figure 5.4 Quantile-Quantile Plot of Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking ............... 69 Figure 5.5 The Quantile of Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking ............................... 70 Figure 5.6 Estimated Parameter by Quantile for Curb Parking Rate ........................... 72 Figure 5.7 Spatial Distribution of the Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking .............. 74 Figure 5.8 Spatial Distribution of Curb Parking Occupancy ....................................... 75. iv. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(9) List of Tables Table 3.1 Parking Statistics Over the Last Decade ...................................................... 21 Table 3.2 Distribution of Always-empty Curb Spaces at Peak Time .......................... 30 Table 3.3 Annual Revenue Earned from Curb Parking Spaces ................................... 33 Table 4.1 Number of Traffic Zones in Each District ................................................... 39 Table 4.2 Data Fields in Taipei Curb Parking Map Layer ........................................... 41 Table 4.3 The Distribution Area of Curb Parking Spaces ........................................... 43. 政治大 Table 4.5 The Classification 立 of Land Use Types.........................................................47 Table 4.4 The Overview of Parking Supply and Demand ........................................... 46. ‧ 國. 學. Table 4.6 The Calculation Methods of Parking Fee .................................................... 49 Table 4.7 Different Calculation Methods of Parking Fee in Each District .................. 51. ‧. Table 4.8 Different Combinations of Parking Fees ..................................................... 52. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Table 4.9 Days to Pay Curb Parking Fees ................................................................... 53 Table 4.10 Meter Hours of Curb Parking .................................................................... 54. al. n. v i n Table 4.11 Description of Variables C h and FunctionsU.....................................................61 engchi Table 4.12 Descriptive Statistics of Each Variable ..................................................... 61 Table 5.1 OLS Estimation of Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking ........................... 67 Table 5.2 Descriptive Statistics of Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking ................... 70 Table 5.3 Models of Quantity Demanded of Curb Parking via OLS and QR ............. 71 Table 5.4 Models of Vacancy Rate and the Price Elasticity of Curb Parking ............. 77. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.


(11) Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 General Background Information The past few decades have seen growing attention on the economics of curb parking. Pierce and Shoup (2013) attempted to eliminate traffic congestion and raise the turnover through demand-responsive pricing. In 2015, Taipei City, with the similar aim to increase parking turnover during the daytime and prevent shortage at night, implemented a thoroughgoing price reform for on-street parking. Different from. 治政大 main arteries, the government previous policy that only prices parking spaces along 立 ‧ 國. 學. now prices all curbside parking, including those located in the allies. Although this reform seemed to be successful, reducing long holdover, it also led to an unintended. ‧. outcome that curbside parking, in some areas, appeared to be empty and unused at all. Nat. sit. y. hours. This phenomenon divulges an undeveloped aspect that empty curb spaces are a. n. al. er. io. land-use issue. Having curb parking unused all the time is apparently an inefficient use of land.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Curb parking or, say, on-street parking from the land economics point of view, is a product of land provided by the government. The presence of empty parking spaces at all times is equivalent to a large valuable inventory of vacant lands with the sign of market inefficiency. In the year 2017, there is a total of 47,247 curbside parking spaces in Taipei City that covers over 649,646 𝑚𝑚2 , equivalent to almost 79 football fields. An. investigation disclosed from the Department of Transportation of Taipei City (DOT) further suggested that 30 percent of road segments, especially which is located in Nangang District, have seen an occupancy rate less than 60 percent during the peak 1. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(12) time, not to mention the off-peak periods. These data indicate the severe inefficient use of land in urban areas. Approximately 7.79 hectares of land cannot serve either as road or as a parking space but remain empty. They are a waste of public resource and consequently a welfare loss for the whole society. Although the social welfare loss stemmed from the inefficient use of on-street parking, neither urban planners nor researchers seem to have taken this stunning land costs into account. The setup of parking spaces and parking rates primarily reflects the traffic and. 政治大 phenomenon is observed 立in the academic world; surprising little literature has raised public safety concerns, lacking the awareness of land costs or use. The similar. ‧ 國. 學. the issue of land use efficiency when curb parking is under discussion. One of the most fruitful areas of parking research has concentrated on the elimination of parking. ‧. externalities from the traffic standpoint. Several studies have noted that free on-street. y. Nat. er. io. sit. parking embodies the concept of the tragedy of commons; it creates the classic commons problem such as the time waste for cruising, traffic congestion, and air. n. al. Ch. pollution. The long holdover retrains drivers. engchi. v i n from accessing U. parking spaces and. increases the time for cruising for parking. To resolve this ensuing congestion, a large body of research has proposed to use various pricing model to alter the on-street parking occupancy (Arnott & Inci, 2006; Pierce & Shoup, 2013). In this paper, we pursue to retrieve the missing attention of land use efficiency on curb parking. We employ the Parking Supply and Demand Survey in Taipei City to probe into the actual demand of curb parking. If curb spaces do not achieve full occupancy during the "peak time” when a highest parking utilization is expected, the empty curb. 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(13) space creates an inefficient use of land. The explorations of vacant parking lots and their opportunity cost mark a need to provide a fresh viewpoint from land use efficiency to both researchers and urban planners. We conduct a comprehensive analysis on Taipei City to understand different patterns of parking and land-use efficiency. Such research is still in its infancy, but it may lead to a contribution to unveil the land aspect of curb parking. We believe that this line of research may serve as a reference for government’s parking plan in the future.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(14) 1.2 Purpose of Research This paper is inspired by the change in occupancy rate of on-street parking after the 2015 parking price reform in Taipei City. The purpose of this study is threefold: 1. Fill in the research gap between the on-street parking and the land use efficiency Most of the present research centers on the parking shortage that generates traffic congestion. Few studies have dealt with the unoccupied on-street parking from the land use perspective. This paper offers a new viewpoint from land use efficiency to fill in such a gap.. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 2. Inject the land perspective into the planning practice. Empty curb parking is a misallocation of the public resource, but few people bear this. ‧. in mind. We attempt to bridge the long-neglected connection between curb parking and. Nat. sit. y. land use efficiency by highlighting the significant welfare loss and low return on. n. al. er. io. investment of curb spaces. The government should stress more on the land element while planning on the on-street parking.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 3. Explore potential factors in parking occupancy to attain ideal land use efficiency Many economists utilize pricing models to avoid traffic congestion and manage the parking behavior at the curbside. They set out the target occupancy rate and use the market price to achieve it. Subject to the limited data available, we failed to know the demand function and its elasticity to the price of parking spaces. We, however, are able to find out what is likely to affect parking occupancy and further enhance land use efficiency by empirical investigation. Thus, we conduct a cross-sectional study to provide concrete suggestions for parking planning. 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(15) 1.3 Research Questions If parking spaces remain empty during the peak period, such spaces will be even less possible to be occupied at other times. These parking lots, hence, are vacant lands that can neither serve as the road for traveling nor the space for a temporary need and represent a misallocation of public resources. In light of such inefficiency, we conduct both descriptive statistical analyses and regression analysis on curb parking in Taipei. The primary research questions to be asked are:. 政治大 How can parking fees 立work to improve land use efficiency?. 1. Is on-street parking an efficient use of land?. 學. 2.1 How effective parking fees are in changing the quantity demanded of curb parking?. ‧ 國. 2.2 How effective parking fees are in changing the vacancy rate of curb parking?. ‧. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. 2.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 5. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(16) 1.4 Research Methodology This study reviews the current parking condition and employs two phases of the linear regression model to answer the research questions respectively. In the first phase of our empirical analysis, we make an inquiry about the price mechanism between parking fees and quantity demanded of curb spaces. The ordinal least squares estimator and the quantile estimates are employed to look into the variations of the amount needed in different fractions of data.. 政治大. Additionally, the second phase examines the influence of parking fees on the vacancy. 立. rate of curb parking at peak time. If curb spaces remain empty during then, they become. ‧ 國. 學. the vacant land in the city permanently. Thus, the regression model examines the extent. ‧. of such inefficiency. We hope to provide practical insights into whether parking fees. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. can act as a policy to improve the efficient use of land.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 6. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(17) 1.5 Outline 1.5.1 Research Structure There are six chapters in this study, including the introduction, literature review, situational analysis, research design, empirical analysis, and discussion and conclusion. The first chapter introduces the research motivation and purpose. The second chapter reviews curb parking from the land perspective. We first explain why curb parking is a monopolistic good and its fee is a monopoly rent. Next, we explain how performance. 政治大. pricing may improve the allocation efficiency of curb parking. Chapter three asserts. 立. why urban planners should incorporate land perspective into parking planning by. ‧ 國. 學. presenting the current situation of curb parking in Taipei. This chapter includes a policy. ‧. review of curb parking planning and descriptive analyses of land use efficiency.. sit. y. Nat. Chapter four illustrates the scope and the methods of research and Chapter five presents. io. al. er. the result of the empirical analysis. We conduct both cross-sectional study to delve into. v. n. the potential factors behind parking occupancy. Finally, in chapter six, we wrap up this. Ch. engchi. piece of research with policy suggestions.. i n U. 7. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(18) 1.5.2 Conceptual Framework. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 1.1 Conceptual Framework. 8. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(19) Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Curb Parking Curb Parking is a Monopolistic Good People often regard curb parking as a free entitlement provided by the government. Those parking spaces, however, do not resemble public goods at all, because they present neither the characteristics of non-rival nor the features of non-exclusive (Shoup,. 政治大. 2017, p. 296). Curb parking is closer to a monopolistic private good.. 立. First, curb parking is rival since one parking space only serves one car at a time. One. ‧ 國. 學. driver’s occupation reduces the parking lots left for someone else. Second, charging. ‧. curb parking is easy. Drivers who park their cars on the curbside are the exclusive. sit. y. Nat. beneficiaries to pay for the charge. Third, curb parking market is monopolistic as its. io. al. er. demand curve slopes downward without close substitutes. Calthrop and Proost (2006). v. n. may disapprove this cogitation in that they viewed on-street and off-street parking as. Ch. engchi. i n U. substitutes in their evaluation of optimal on-street parking regulation. Nonetheless, Mussa and Rosen (1978) pointed out that due to the distinctive individual preferences, consumers do not place the valuations on all attributes of goods but only on those that is important to them. Therefore, these two types of parking are far from perfectly interchangeable. We can further explain this idea in the following situation. Suppose one driver visits an unknown area with no prior knowledge of nearby parking facilities; the anxiety arising from the unfamiliar environment will induce the driver to choose curb parking with better accessibility and visibility over off-street parking. The driver. 9. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(20) tends to take this option because on-street parking, with its location along the curbside, appears to be a more approachable easy-option. Whereas, the off-street parking which is often set underground or concealed in the alleys, is simply out of reach. The off-street parking, therefore, is not a close substitute for the on-street parking. If curb parking is a monopolistic good providing the advantage of accessibility and visibility, the government, as its exclusive supplier, then becomes the monopolist. From a body of past research, a monopoly market often meets three essential features: high. 政治大 curb parking market as 立 an instance; high barriers have always been the Parking Facility. entry barriers, no close competitors, and producer as the price-maker. Take Taipei’s. ‧ 國. 學. Act which confers unwavering authority to the government but prevent new parking suppliers from entering in. This strict statutory not only forces out all possible. ‧. competitors, making the market a typical government-granted monopoly but also. y. Nat. er. io. sit. entitles the government a robust pricing capability. From such regulation, Department of Transportation of Taipei City (DOT) is the sole authorized agency that reserves a. al. n. v i n monopolistic control over the for the curb parking in Taipei. Cland h esupply ngchi U Curb Parking Revenue is Land Rent. While countries around the world gradually accept the idea of charging the market price to control curb parking’s occupancy and turnover rates, they implement curb parking fees for different reasons. One of the most common propositions perceives such pricing as a policy to resolve traffic problems. Arnott, De Palma, and Lindsey (1991) formalized Vickrey's idea in the bottleneck model and explored the effects of parking fees on morning rush-hour traffic congestion. This model later became the most widely 10. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(21) used analysis scenario in the parking pricing research (Glazer & Niskanen, 1992; Qian, Xiao, & Zhang, 2011; Verhoef, Nijkamp, & Rietveld, 1995). Despite the popularly accepted views, Shoup (2017, pp. 505-509) suggested that charging parking spaces can also be a fiscal policy in the context of Henry George’s proposal. In Henry George’s publication (1879), Progress and Poverty, he argued that taxing land values is the “naturally ordained” source of government revenue. This is because, first, land taxes are just and equal. Land owners are unlikely to shift the tax, and the revenue from land taxes are returned to communities who create the land values. Second, land taxes are. 治政 apt to promote “highest and best” use of the land 大 since the need to raise cash to pay 立 ‧ 國. 學. taxes may induce owners to put their land in the use that can yield the highest rent. So what do these ideas have to do with curb parking? First, parking is one of the most. ‧. important intermediate goods in the modern market economy because most. y. Nat. er. io. sit. transportation activities started from a parked vehicle and terminated by parking it again (Hasker and Inci, 2014). No matter vehicles are parked, or in transit, they take up a. al. n. v i n tremendous amount of land. market prices for curb parking is CTherefore, U h e n g charging i h c similar to taxing the use of the land. Only drivers who receive a peculiar benefit from. parking ought to pay for this land rent. Second, charging the right price for curb parking should result in the efficient use of land, i.e. the highest and best use or the highest occupancy rate.. 11. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(22) Curb Parking Revenue is not only Land Rent, but Marxian Monopoly Rent In the preceding paragraphs, we mentioned that curb parking market is a governmentgranted monopoly and curb parking revenues is a form of land rent. Adam Smith (1950), in The Wealth of Nations, defined that the rent of land is the rent to monopoly, which is now known as the monopoly rent. Though, based on Smith’s definition, curb parking revenue, rather than being a transportation or fiscal policy, may resemble monopoly rent. The shadowy and amorphous research on this concept has resulted in difficulties. 政治大 Evans’ work on reviewing 立 the literature of various authors in monopoly rents. He. to interpret the true meaning of the monopoly rent (Evans, 1991). We, therefore, follow. ‧ 國. 學. discussed different paradigms in depth and systemized the scattered opinions into three possible ways.. ‧. sit. y. Nat. The first term, “Class Monopoly” refers to the idea that the “class of landowners”. io. al. er. collect land rents from their private ownership; these rents are called the monopoly rent.. v. n. The studies of Say (1861) and Senior (1938) both accord with this idea of monopoly. Ch. engchi. i n U. rent. They proposed that landowners exert a kind of monopoly over farmers and such monopoly derives from the use of natural resource − the land. The application of this concept to curb parking spaces seems unsuitable in the sense that most studies of class monopoly focused on farmlands and we cannot find the “class” of owners nowadays. The second usage, “Site Monopoly,” explains the idea that the monopoly of distinguishable sites provides the landowner monopoly rent. Nevertheless, Evans (1991) pointed out that this interpretation of monopoly rent is identical to the so-called “differential rent” because landowners display no monopolistic behavior in this case. 12. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(23) They cannot restrict land supply for a specific use to price the rent. In comparison with the case of curb parking, the government grasp monopoly power over the supply of parking space. Accordingly, this concept of monopoly rent is again inapplicable to curb parking revenue. The third usage describes the concept proposed by Marx (1976) and was named naturally as “Marxian Monopoly Rent.” Marx came up with a more detailed view of the land rent by distinguishing it into differential rent, absolute rent, and monopoly rent.. 政治大 from an independent 立 monopoly price for the products of the land itself. In turn,. He interpreted monopoly rent as the surplus over the other two rents. Such rent arises. ‧ 國. 學. monopoly rent occurs when profits derived from monopolistic behavior and can be realized in the form of land rents (Evans, 1991). If we compare the curb parking revenue. ‧. to the case depicted above, government authorities (i.e., landowners) behave like. y. Nat. er. io. sit. monopolists; they hold full right to curb parking’s supply and price decision. Since the revenue (i.e., land rents) collected originates from the exclusive use of curbside parking. al. n. v i n spaces, we should regard curb as Marxian Monopoly Rent. C parking h e n revenue i h gc U. 13. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(24) 2.2 Pricing the Curb Parking An economic analysis of curb parking addresses mainly the issues related to the quantity and the price (Inci, 2015). Curb parking spaces, in the short run, are fixed in supply; and market prices for curb parking can ensure its efficient allocation (Shoup, 2017, p. 508). To allocate such resource efficiently, Goodwin (2001, p. 29) distinguished between two strategies which focus on getting the right price and having the appropriate traffic volume respectively. These two strategies are called the price. 政治大. and the quantity approaches to dealing with externalities.. 立. The first strategy was to “get the prices right: where travel is currently undercharged,. ‧ 國. 學. getting the price right will reduce traffic.” A price for parking is a user fee; it is paid. ‧. only by drivers who occupy valuable land and only in proportion to the time they. sit. y. Nat. occupy curb spaces (Shoup, 2017, p. 508). The undercharged curb parking will. io. al. er. encourage vehicle travels; whereas, the overcharged curb parking shift travelers from. v. n. driving to walk, cycle or ride public transit. Thus in Arnott and Inci’s (2006) “bathtub. Ch. engchi. i n U. model,” a right price for curb spaces are discovered to reduce the phenomenon of cruising and remedy the external cost caused by on-street parking. However, unlike general merchandise which demand stays the same for a duration, the parking demand varies drastically just in a day. Managing the traffic by uniform pricing for curb spaces is impractical. Nor can urban planners adjust the parking vehicle-storing capacity in the short run to clear the market. Hence, Goodwin’s (2001) second strategy is to decide how much traffic we want in the beginning and then use a demand-responsive price to achieve it. Since all vehicles 14. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(25) parked or in traffic occupy spaces, the proposition of setting the traffic volume often transforms into the determination of the right parking occupancy. In Shoup’s (2017, p. 297) research, an efficient and equitable occupancy rate usually empties about 15 percent of curb spaces to ensure easy entry and exit. The right price, which clears the market, emerges as a result in response to the target occupancy rate. Because such parking fee reflects drivers’ parking demand and reveals essential information about what drivers think parking spaces are really worth, demand-responsive prices for curb parking is an analogy of spot prices for land.. 政治大 However, market prices立 can ensure the efficient allocation of on-street parking, but not. ‧ 國. 學. the full use of curb spaces (Shoup, 2017, p. 549). That is, performance pricing aims at a target occupancy rate that is predetermined by the traffic rules of thumb but does not. ‧. resolve the optimal parking occupancy. Demand-responsive pricing, first, alters the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. market demand; then, due to the fixed parking supply in short run, occupancy rate increases or declines to meet the target. Hence, what market prices bring about is the. n. al. Ch. allocation efficiency of curb parking.. engchi. i n U. v. In 2011, Shoup carried out a radical experiment with performance parking-price in San Francisco. While adopting this price reform, administrators aim at optimizing curb parking’s occupancy rate, but not maximizing the profit as monopolists. Meanwhile, performance pricing is not the price discrimination because different drivers pay the same price for parking on the same block at the same time. This pricing technique improved the fairness as well as the transportation efficiency unexpectedly. On the one hand, the market prices are fair. Charging demand-responsive prices for curb parking. 15. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(26) and spending the revenue to pay for public services will redistribute the income to help poorer households without cars. On the other hand, performance pricing increases the efficiency. This pricing method reduces traffic congestion and makes considerable progress to solve vital problems of severe overcrowding on some blocks and very low occupancy on others (Pierce & Shoup, 2013). In general, performance pricing ensures the efficient allocation of curb parking; and the full use of curb spaces improves the land use efficiency.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 16. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(27) 2.3 Summary In the past, most people considered curb parking to be a free entitlement provided by the government. The attention paid to on-street parking is always about the transportation aspect. Several researchers noted that free on-street parking embodies the concept of the tragedy of commons. The overconsumption of curb spaces creates problems such as the time waste for cruising, traffic congestion, and air pollution. Nevertheless, Shoup (2017) remarked that the on-street parking resembles more a. 政治大 time, and every parked立 vehicle occupies a parcel of land. The parking problem is not private good due to its rival characteristic. One curb space can only serve one car at a. ‧ 國. 學. only a transportation concern but essentially a land use matter. We conclude two intriguing results from the literature as follows.. ‧. sit. y. Nat. 1. Pricing the curb parking to improve the land use efficiency. io. al. er. Charging the on-street parking is often viewed as an approach to resolve the ensuing. v. n. traffic chaos in numerous past studies. Shoup (2017), however, regarded parking fees. Ch. engchi. i n U. as a fiscal policy of collecting land rents. If land rents are a product of the exclusive use of land, it can be more precisely defined as the Marxian monopoly rent (Evans, 1991). In the case of curb parking, parking fees are a form of monopoly rent since the government holds the decisive power of parking planning exclusively. Therefore, pricing the curb parking is an approach not just to eliminate the traffic externalities but to improve the land use efficiency.. 17. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(28) 2. Set the target occupancy rate for the efficient land use and use the parking fee to achieve it Although we continuously assert the importance of perceiving curb parking as a land use issue, curb parking can never leave its essence of being a transportation matter. The second part of the literature review delves into how curb parking should be priced from a transportation economics perspective. Dealing with the externalities caused by curb parking, Goodwin (2001) offered us two strategies: the price and quantity approaches. The former set out a price to find the optimal parking occupancy, but the latter set the. 治政大 parking-price to achieve it. In occupancy rate in advance and use the performance 立 ‧ 國. 學. Shoup’s curb parking experiment in San Francisco, he adopted the second strategy. The transportation rule of thumb predetermines the target occupancy rate at 85 percent, and. ‧. the demand-responsive prices are employed to reach it. In our research, we set the target. Nat. sit. y. occupancy rate under the consideration of land use efficiency and exert the market price. n. al. er. io. as land rents to achieve it.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 18. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(29) Chapter 3 Current Conditions of Curb Parking in Taipei When talking about parking planning, transportation concerns such as parking shortage often override the attention on land use efficiency. Though it is natural to incline to such a view as parking is an important intermediate goods for transportation activities, the fact that parking spaces take up a substantial amount of land cannot be overly emphasized. Transportation concerns lead planners to think that parking is a problem simply when there is a lack of it. But too many empty curb spaces are also a problem — it increases vacant. 政治大. lands, obstructs urban development, reduces tax revenue, and degrades social welfare.. 立. Therefore, the land perspective is equally important in the parking planning.. ‧ 國. 學. 3.1 Review of Curb Parking Standards. ‧. 3.1.1 Parking Policy in the Last Decade. sit. y. Nat. io. al. er. In Taipei City, under the premise of returning the road to allow vehicle conveyance, on-. v. n. street parking is an expedient measure to make up for the deficiency of off-street parking.. Ch. engchi. i n U. The Department of Transportation of Taipei City has clearly stated that curb parking planning is a product of transportation factors and public safety concerns. It includes the considerations such as road types, road widths, road service levels, local parking supply and demand, and disaster relief. Therefore, the growth rate of curb spaces has stayed moderately between 2 to 4 percent in the last decade. Since 2009, the primary goal of parking planning has been to increase the parking turnover. One approach proposed by the government is to expand the coverage of parking fees. The government hoped to shorten the holdover of curb parking and alleviate the ensuing 19. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(30) problems such as parking shortage and illegal parking by pricing. A parking survey in 2009 reported that 33 percent of the parking demand in six southern districts 1 of Taipei is illegal parking. Meanwhile, the parking shortage is particularly severe in Wenshan district. The total quantity supplied of parking spaces served only 78 percent of the potential parking demand in this old residential district. Over the last ten years, the severity of parking shortage has gradually been relieved. As shown in Table 3.1, the number of parking spaces (i.e., both the on-street and off-street. 政治大 the number of licensed automobiles 立 has risen by only 13 percent ((810,179 − 717,624) ÷. parking) has increased by 37 percent ((749,909 − 543,794) ÷ 543,794 × 100%) while. ‧ 國. 學. 717,624 × 100% ). Parking spaces in Taipei City were able to serve 93 percent. ‧. (749,909 ÷ 810,170 × 100%) of automobiles in 2017, and 1.08 cars shared one parking. space on average (see row 12). Nevertheless, since many old condos in Taipei City fall. y. Nat. er. io. sit. short of attached parking garages, the city still failed to eradicate the problem of holdover for curb spaces. The percentage of cars with its private parking space is meager over the. al. n. v i n last decade. Even in 2017, thereC was still about 31 percent (100% − 68.85%) of licensed hengchi U automobiles with no private parking.. 1. Six southern districts refer to Wanhua, Daan, Sinyi, Nangang, Zhongzheng, and Wenshan districts. 20. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(31) Table 3.1 Parking Statistics Over the Last Decade Number of Licensed Automobiles. Number of Parking Spaces. Number of Cars per Parking Space. Percentage of Public Parking Spaces. Percentage of Car with its own Parking Space. (1). (2). (1)÷(2). (3). (4). 2008. 717,624. 543,794. 1.32. 33.92%. 50.60%. 2009. 721,326. 568,154. 1.27. 34.93%. 53.86%. 2010. 725,121. 591,742. 1.23. 36.37%. 55.14%. 2011. 744,108. 607,213. 1.23. 36.53%. 55.97%. 2012. 756,602. 624,339. 1.21. 37.34%. 57.14%. 2013. 768,100. 634,417. 1.21. 37.42%. 57.99%. 2014. 787,676. 650,398. 1.21. 37.25%. 58.65%. 2015. 799,248. 669,523. 1.19. 38.15%. 60.94%. 2016. 804,697. 733,113. 1.10. 40.29%. 67.14%. 2017. 810,179. 1.08. 41.09%. 68.65%. Year. 立. 政治大. 749,909. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Source: Department of Transportation, Taipei City Government.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 21. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(32) 3.1.2 Taipei City Ten-Year Parking Plan In July 2015, Taipei City government released Taipei City Ten-Year Parking Plan (臺北. 市十年停車計畫) to tackle the phenomenon of long holdover and to return curb spaces to the public. Urban planners set out six strategies to attain this goal in 2025.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. al. er. io. 1. Charge all curb spaces (路邊停車全面收費). sit. y. Nat. Figure 3.1 Six Strategies in Taipei City Ten-Year Parking Plan. i n U. v. The economic rationale of user charge is not to maximize the revenue, but to promote the. Ch. engchi. economic efficiency. The city government implemented a user-charge price reform (臺北市路邊停車全面收費) on curb spaces to improve the efficiency of parking choice. In 2025, administrators will expect to increase the coverage of parking fees from 49 percent to 100 percent, charging all of the curb spaces in the city. 2. Build more attached garages (建物附設車位) If all privately owned automobiles have their exclusive parking space (買車自備停車位), the holdover will not be as rampant as today. To reach the ideal of “One Car by One Parking Lot (一車一位),” Taipei city plans to build more attached garages in the next decade. They 22. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(33) foresee that the number of parking spaces provided from the attached garage will reach at least 80 percent of licensed automobiles in 2025. 3. Meet the parking demand (滿足停車需求) The Department of Transportation stated that an ideal parking supply should satisfy the parking demand at the just-right level. The target occupancy rate is 0.75 in 2025. Besides, based on different types of the trip, parking demand can be grouped into two sets — that is, the using-demand 2 for public parking and the holding-demand 3 for private parking. For. 政治大 Parking (改善停車問題方案) 立 enacted by the Executive Yuan. In 2014, public parking using-demand, Taipei city endeavored to comply with the Improvement Strategy of. ‧ 國. 學. spaces were able to meet the need of 32 percent of licensed automobiles, exceeding the requirement of 15 to 20 percent by far. As for the holding-demand, Taipei city implements. ‧. the second strategy mentioned above to reach the goal of “One Car by One Parking Lot (一. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 車一位).”. v. n. 4. Replace on-street parking by off-street parking (停車路外化). Ch. engchi. i n U. On-street parking has the disadvantage of encroaching upon roads, slowing down traffic and endangering the public safety. Thus, Taipei city government plan to reduce the number of curb spaces and replace them with the new supply of parking garage. They plan to downsize the curb parking by 50 percent and provide about 45 thousand on-street parking spaces and 60 thousand off-street parking spaces, respectively in 2025.. 2. Drivers demand public parking if neither the origination and the destination of a trip is home (i.e., nonhome based trip). They have a using-demand for the public parking. 3 By contrast, drivers demand private parking to park their cars if a trip either begins or terminates at home. They have a holding-demand for the private parking. 23. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(34) 5. Shorten the time for cruising (縮短尋車時間) Time wasted for cruising is one of the external cost created by curb parking. Administrators implemented several new technologies, such as the on-spot parking locating system and the online inquiry for parking availability, to reduce the time thus wasted. These technology improvements are expected to shorten the time for cruising to 8 minutes in 2025. 6. Make the full use of parking spaces (空間有效利用) Envisaging a caring and sharing society, one target that is most relevant to land use. 政治大 turnover to share parking spaces 立 with the society. In 2025, parking turnover is expected to. efficiency is to make the full use of parking spaces. “Full use” is defined as a higher parking. ‧ 國. 學. increase from 3.25 to 4.5 a day, and the function of which is defined as below. 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠. ‧. Parking turnover =. Nat. sit. y. Above are the six strategies to increase the efficiency in parking planning. The second,. n. al. er. io. third, fourth and fifth strategies all attempt to improve the efficiency by reducing external. i n U. v. costs of on-street parking. Whereas, by contrast, the first and sixth strategies improve the. Ch. engchi. efficiency by optimizing resource allocation.. In the next section, we go on looking into the land use efficiency of curb parking. We employ the concepts of the user charge price reform and the parking turnover from the first and six strategies respectively. These two strategies offer us practical insights on how to improve the efficiency by allocating land resources.. 24. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(35) 3.2 Land Use Efficiency in Curb Spaces For many years of study, there is no trouble in understanding that a good curb parking planning can resolve the parking shortage and eliminate several external costs such as traffic congestion. However, we rarely think of the possibility that an inadequate curb parking planning not only brings about social externalities but also results in a severe waste of land resource in the city. Taipei City Ten-Year Parking Plan (臺北市十年停車計畫) proposed to attain the full use. 政治大. of curb spaces by higher turnover rate. The idea of quantifying parking utilization is favored,. 立. but parking turnover fails to show how effectively the parking spaces are occupied and. ‧ 國. 學. leaves out the connection to the land. What a higher parking turnover indicates is a higher. ‧. average number of “cars” that successively occupy a curb space daily. A probable situation. sit. y. Nat. can be that curb parking’s turnover rate is high, but half of the curb spaces still remain. io. al. er. empty during the peak time. Furthermore, if parking turnover is estimated from small. v. n. samples and is conducted at different places and at different times, they may be a. Ch. engchi. i n U. misleading guide for parking planning (Shoup, 2005). Therefore, in this study, we employ parking occupancy as an alternative to estimating land use efficiency. Parking occupancy or, say, parking index, is the ratio of the number of spaces occupied to the total spaces available within a time duration. It shows to what extent the land is in use. Land use efficiency would be better off if the parking occupancy is high or at least curb spaces are fully occupied during the peak time. To concentrate our attention on land without distractions from the difference between different modes of transport, the curb parking in our research refers only to curb spaces of 25. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(36) the compact cars 4. The following analyses are threefold; we first bring up an astounding number to denote how curb spaces encroach upon the urban land. Next, we put parking occupancy in perspective; the low occupancy rate during the peak demand for parking signifies an unconscious abuse of the land. Finally, we estimate such waste of land in monetary terms. The low return on investment in curb parking explains why curb spaces may not be a wise investment of land. The government should act wisely to redistribute the money and propose a more rational curb parking planning.. 政治大. 3.2.1 Curb Parking Eats Up Urban Land. 立. The Department of Transportation has the estimated number of curb spaces in Taipei City. ‧ 國. 學. over the last decade. Figure 3.2 shows the estimated number from 2010 to 2017. The. ‧. number ranged between 47,000 and 59,000 and exhibited a stable trend. In addition, in. sit. y. Nat. 2016, to implement a user-charge price reform on all curb spaces, the city government. io. al. er. reorganized the on-street parking thoroughly. This price reform led to an outlying surge of. v. n. an additional 13.5 percent of supply that amounted to approximately 7000 parking spaces.. Ch. engchi. i n U. However, knowing the number of curb spaces alone failed to understand the extent to which curb parking has encroached upon the city. Given that the size of a regular compact-car curb space varies from 10 to 15 square meters 5, curb parking over the last decade has eaten up 470,000 square meters (47,000 × 10𝑚𝑚2 ) to 885,000 square meters (59,000 × 15𝑚𝑚2 ) 4. Compact car in this thesis follows the definition given by Taipei Parking Supply and Demand. Any automobiles, including 550cc motorcycle, that are able to park in the curb spaces which are 2 to 2.5 meters wide and 5 to 6 meters long are viewed as compact cars. 5. According to Article 190 of the Traffic Sign Markings Installation Regulations (道路交通標誌標線號誌. 設置規則), curb spaces for compact car are 2 to 2.5 meters wide and 5 to 6 meters long. The land area of a curb space for compact car, thus, ranges between 10 to 15 square meters. 26. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(37) of urban land. It is stunning to think of putting 66 to 124 football fields in the center of the city for using them only as curb parking. Change in the number of curb spaces for compact car (%) Number of curb spaces for compact car 16%. 70,000 13.5%. 14%. 60,000. 12%. 58,163. 10% 8%. 48,603. 47,070. 45,888. 47,780. 49,208. 49,695. 58,906 50,000. 51,229. 49,222. 40,000. 6% 4.1%. 4% 2%. 4.1%. 政治大 1.0%. 0% -2%. 30,000. 3.0%. -3.2%. -2.5%. -4%. 2010. ‧ 國. 2009. 20,000 10,000. -1.0% 0 2011. 2012. 2013. 2014. 2015. 學. 2008. 立. 1.3%. 2016. 2017. Figure 3.2 Number of Parking Spaces in Taipei (2008-2017). ‧. Sources: Taipei City Department of Transportation and Construction Management Office. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. 3.2.2 Forever Empty Curb Spaces Represent an Inefficient Use of Land. v. n. In a city where every inch of land is gold, allocating an enormous amount of land as curb. Ch. engchi. i n U. spaces is never the highest and best use. However, it would not be unacceptable if there is a real demand. To verify such demand, think of the occupancy rate of curb parking during the peak time (i.e., when parking demand is among the highest): all curb spaces should be taken; otherwise, it will be an oversupply of curb parking at all times. Excessive curb spaces indicate the inefficient use of land in that they can never meet the parking demand nor be put into other uses — they appear to be always vacant and that is a waste of resource.. 27. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(38) Each year Taipei Parking Supply and Demand Analysis (臺北市汽機車停車供需調查) discovers the parking occupancy through a survey of curb parking. This analysis divides the city into the northern and southern parts and takes turns to investigate one of them every other year. In 2016, the investigation fell on six northern districts, and it pointed out that 2,747 curb spaces were empty during the peak period. In 2017, the study turned into the other six southern districts and found that there were 1,745 empty curb spaces at the peak time. These numbers may seem small for empty curb spaces took up no more than 10% of total on-street parking. They, however, signified the presence of extensive vacant lands,. 治政大city. with the size as big as almost eight football fields, in the 立 ‧ 國. 學. 3.2.3 The Government Fritters Land Resources Away Unconsciously. ‧. Vacant land has always been a controversial topic. Some cities around the world tax vacant. sit. y. Nat. lands to encourage development and avoid speculation. In Taipei City, though vacant land. io. al. er. tax is presently not enforced, privately-owned vacant land should at least pay the land value. v. n. tax. Nevertheless, empty curb spaces at all times are vacant lands in disguise. Neither did. Ch. engchi. i n U. they serve for public use 6 nor pay the property tax. In the year of 2017 alone, Taipei City government unconsciously squandered 56,925 square meters and lost over NT$50 million of tax revenue on empty curb spaces. If the urban planners continue ignoring the inefficiency caused by these always-empty curb spaces, in the long run, the abuse of land will only be enlarged.. 6. Under the Land Tax Act Article 20, public land specified for public use is exempted from land value tax. 28. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(39) Furthermore, an intriguing discovery among such abuse of land is that empty curb spaces do not evenly scatter in location, but instead cluster in one or two districts. Take the six southern districts as an example (see Table 3.2, rows 8-13), three-fourths of empty curb spaces during the peak time are located in Nangang district; while the other five districts attained a high occupancy rate of above 90 percent. Similar patterns appear in the investigation of six northern districts. Four-fifths of empty on-street parking are intensively distributed in Neihu district and Zhongshan district, with parking spaces in other districts are almost fully occupied. This phenomenon explains why many drivers still find it difficult. 治政大of vast vacant spaces. The uneven to search for a curb space in Taipei, despite the existence 立 ‧ 國. 學. distribution of empty parking spaces signifies that different districts may encounter completely different parking problems. The government should employ a more customized. ‧. parking planning to improve the overall land use efficiency.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 29. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(40) Table 3.2 Distribution of Always-empty Curb Spaces at Peak Time Wasted land (𝑚𝑚2 ). DSR. Parking Supply. Parking Demand. Gap. (2)÷(1). (1). (2). (2)−(1). Datong. 1.08. 1,731. 1,869. 138. 0. Zhongshan. 0.85. 4,380. 3,703. -677. 8,378. Neihu. 0.79. 7,114. 5,620. -1494. 18,488. Songshan. 0.95. 4,943. 4,680. -263. 3,255. Shilin. 0.93. 4,876. 4,551. -325. 4,022. Beitou. 0.97. 3,564. 3,468. -96. 1,188. Wangua. 0.97. 2,588. 2,501. -87. 1,077. Daan. 0.97. 4,346. 4,211. -135. 1,671. Xinyi. 0.97. 1,974. 1,917. -57. 705. Nangang. 0.79. 3,276. -892. 11,039. Zhongzheng. 0.90. 3,016. 2,716. -300. 3,713. 0.95. 5,370. 5,096. 學 -274. 3,391. 0.93. 48,070. 43,608. -4462. 56,925. Wenshan Total. 立. 4,168. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. District. *DSR: demand to supply ratio or the occupancy rate.. *Gap: the gap between parking supply and demand at peak time (parking demand−parking supply); this. y. Nat. sit. shortage depicts the number of all-time vacant curb spaces.. er. al. n. a curb space.. io. *Wasted land is the product of the number of always empty curb spaces multiply by the average size of. Ch. i n U. v. Sources: Data of six northern districts is from 2016 Taipei Parking Supply and Demand Analysis.. engchi. Data of six southern district is from 2017 Taipei Parking Supply and Demand Analysis.. 30. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(41) 3.2.4 Curb Parking is an Inefficient Use of Land, Financially Speaking. Another way to put land use efficiency in perspective is to compare the achieved effect and the land resource consumed for curb parking in monetary terms. As we have mentioned before, curb parking is a unique product that can only be provided by the government. In consequence, curb parking charge could produce monopoly rent because of government’s monopolistic behavior and the exclusive use of curbside spaces. Therefore, if we stand in the government shoes and think about its cost and revenue, we may weigh the land cost. 政治大. and parking revenue to assess curb parking’s land use efficiency.. 立. 83.50%. 81.85%. 0. y. sit. al. n. 10,000. io. 20,000. er. 30,000. Nat. 40,000. ‧. 50,000. 59.99%. ‧ 國. 60,000. 學. 70,000. Ch. engchi. Number of charged parking space The coverage of parking fees. i n U. v. 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%. Number of uncharged parking space. Figure 3.3 The Coverage of Parking Fees in Taipei (June 2015-May 2018) Source: Taipei city Department of Transportation and Construction Management Office. Figure 3.3 shows that the price reform in 2015 has led to a significant increase in the coverage of parking fees. There was 59.99 percent of curb spaces paying parking fees in November 2015 before the reform. However, in May 2018, a total of 83.5 percent of curb 31. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(42) spaces are already charged. The Department of Transportation has started the estimation of the monthly curb parking revenue in Taipei City since 2007. Table 3.3 shows the revenue of curb parking in Taipei for the last decade. The last row of the Table shows that the government collected NT$1.61 billion from 58,906 curb spaces in 2017. The average annual revenue per curb space was, therefore, NT$27,369 (𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁$1.61 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ÷ 58,906). For the land cost, we refer to the assessed present land value 7 which reflects the price level of land in transactions. On average, the assessed present value of land used for roads per. 政治大 measured in the Taipei Curb 立Parking Map (台北市路邊停車格位圖) ; thereby, the return square meter was NT$1,858,777 in 2017. One curb space is about 10 square meters 8. ‧ 國. 學. on investment (ROI) of each curb space is then 0.147 percent ( 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁$27,369 ÷. ‧. (𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁$1,858,777 × 10)).. sit. y. Nat. This ratio suggests that the government, if acting as a rational investor, should not invest. io. al. er. in curb parking. In the current low interest rate environment, the return of investing in curb. n. spaces is far lower than the average office rental yield at 2.3 percent 9 . Clearly, it is. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. financially unwise to put the land into curb parking. As far as land use efficiency alone is concerned, the government should at least shift some curb parking spaces for other uses of land and charge curb parking at a higher rate.. 7. Assessed present value of individual land parcels are assessed annually by the Department of Land Administration. This value serves as the tax base of Land Value Increment Tax (LVIT) imposed on the transaction of land. In 2017, the assessed present value is about 91% of the market value. (Source: The Department of Land Administration, Ministry of Interior. https://www.land.moi.gov.tw/chhtml/landvalue.asp?cid=100) 8 Taipei Curb Parking Map is a shapefile data published by the Department of Transportation of Taipei City. In this paper, the data was retrieved on 29th June, 2018. 9 JLL ranked the net rental yield of top six commercial real estate markets in Asia and Taipei was ranked at the last place with a figure of 2.3%. 32. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(43) Table 3.3 Annual Revenue Earned from Curb Parking Spaces Number of curb parking. Curb parking revenue (NT$ billion). Revenue per curb space (NT$/ curb space). 2008. 48,603. NT$ 1.60. NT$ 32,937. 2009. 47,070. NT$ 1.45. NT$ 30,801. 2010. 45,888. NT$ 1.28. NT$ 27,922. 2011. 47,780. NT$ 1.20. NT$ 25,097. 2012. 49,208. NT$ 1.24. NT$ 25,161. 2013. 49,695. NT$ 1.08. NT$ 21,791. 2014. 49,222. NT$ 1.31. NT$ 26,568. 2015. 51,229. NT$ 1.33. NT$ 26,005. 2016. 58,163. 2017. 58,906. Year. 立. 政治大 NT$ 1.61. NT$ 27,624. NT$ 1.61. NT$ 27,369. Source: Taipei City Department of Transportation.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 33. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(44) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 34. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(45) Chapter 4 Research Methodology In the previous chapter, we illustrate the current situation of land use efficiency in curb parking. We suppose the minimum standard of efficient land use is that curb parking must be fully occupied at least at peak time. Hence, peak-time parking occupancy was employed as an essential index to denotes how much land resources are frittered away. In this chapter, we go one step further, attempting to tackle the problem of inefficient land use at its roots. We extend our discussion to the potential factors of parking. 政治大. occupancy and explore any method that can result in better land use efficiency.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. As we have reviewed in chapter two, getting the right price for curb parking works to achieve the target occupancy rate, and the rule of thumb for transportation. ‧. predetermines this target. The decline in parking fees, first, increase the quantity. Nat. sit. y. demanded of curb spaces; then because parking supply is fixed in the short run, parking. er. io. occupancy increases correspondingly.. al. n. v i n In this paper, the proposed model of parking fees on the quantity C h deals with the effect engchi U demanded and the vacancy rate of curb spaces. We are eager to know by getting to what price we eliminate the oversupply of 4,462 spaces at peak time and get full use of every piece of land 10. The subjects of our study are the curb parking of the compact car in Taipei City. The period of time that we study here is between 2015 and 2016. Due to the data characteristics, this two years of data do not provide us with time-series information, but only with a set of cross-sectional data.. 10. The land that is frittered away at peak time is given in Table 3.2. 35. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(46) 4.1 Research Methods This research utilizes the linear regression model to explore how pricing brings about efficient use of land. We employ parking occupancy as the proxy of land use efficiency; and due to the price mechanism mentioned above, as short-term supply for curb spaces is fixed, our empirical analysis is twofold. First, we regress the quantity demanded of curb parking on parking fee. Second, we examine how effective parking fees are in changing the vacancy rate of curb parking. Other possible influence on curb parking. 政治大 also included to complete 立the model. The population model is written as:. such as the quantity supplied of parking spaces and the number of illegal parking are. ‧ 國. 學. 𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖 = 𝛽𝛽0 + 𝛽𝛽1 𝑥𝑥1𝑖𝑖 + 𝛽𝛽2 𝑥𝑥2𝑖𝑖 + 𝛽𝛽3 𝑥𝑥3𝑖𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝛽𝛽𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖. ‧. where 𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖 represents the dependent variable (i.e., it can be the quantity demanded of. y. Nat. curb parking or the vacancy rate of curb spaces in this study); and 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 are independent. sit. io. variables such as parking fee; 𝛽𝛽0 is the intercept and 𝛽𝛽1 to 𝛽𝛽𝑘𝑘 are the coefficients;. n. al. er. 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 is the random and stochastic error term; and finally, the subscript 𝑖𝑖 denotes the 𝑖𝑖th observation.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. To estimate the regression parameters, we utilize the commonly used method, ordinal least squares (OLS). The sample regression model can be written as: 𝑌𝑌�𝑖𝑖 = 𝑏𝑏0 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑥𝑥1𝑖𝑖 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑥𝑥2𝑖𝑖 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝑥𝑥3𝑖𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖. where 𝑏𝑏 is the estimator of the coefficient 𝛽𝛽 and 𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 , called the residual, is the. estimator of the error term 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 . This method estimates the parameter of the population (mean) regression function (PRF) by minimizing the least square error term: 𝑛𝑛. min �( 𝑌𝑌�𝑖𝑖 − 𝑏𝑏0 − 𝑏𝑏1 𝑥𝑥1𝑖𝑖 − 𝑏𝑏2 𝑥𝑥2𝑖𝑖 − 𝑏𝑏3 𝑥𝑥3𝑖𝑖 − ⋯ − 𝑏𝑏𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )2 𝑖𝑖=1. 36. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(47) However, the method of ordinal least square is not always flawless. The OLS regression weighs each observation with equal importance; thus an outlier can greatly affect and mislead the estimation results of the regression line. To deal with the outliers in our dataset, the second methods used in our research is linear quantile regression. This method predicts the 𝜃𝜃th percentile of the dependent. variable against the covariates, instead of the mean; thereby, it can better interpret the extreme value. The model for linear quantile regression is:. 立. 𝑥𝑥 𝛽𝛽 + 𝜀𝜀 政𝑦𝑦 = 治大 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 (𝑦𝑦 | 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑥 𝛽𝛽 𝑖𝑖. 𝑖𝑖 𝜃𝜃. 𝜃𝜃. 𝑖𝑖. 𝑖𝑖. 𝑖𝑖. ′ 𝑖𝑖 𝜃𝜃. ‧ 國. 學. where 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 represents the dependent variable, 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 is the independent variable and 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖. ‧. is the error term. We use quantile regression model to estimate 𝛽𝛽, the parameters, and. y. Nat. 𝜃𝜃 stands for the quantiles. Unlike the OLS estimator, quantile regression aims at ≥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖′ 𝛽𝛽 𝜃𝜃 |𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖. n. al. − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖′ 𝛽𝛽𝜃𝜃 | + ∑𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖. Ch. <𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖′ 𝛽𝛽 (1. engchi. er. io. 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �∑𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖. sit. minimizing absolute error function as below:. − 𝜃𝜃) |𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖′ 𝛽𝛽𝜃𝜃 |�.. i n U. v. 37. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(48) 4.2 Research Data 4.2.1 Data Description This paper incorporates different sources of data to acquire both spatial information and parking rates of curb parking. However, these data are highly heterogeneous as they were produced individually. We, therefore, integrate the data residing in different sources by map overlay analysis in ArcGIS. The following paragraph lays out the data utilized in this research by three categories: the spatial information, the data of parking. 政治大. dynamics, and other attributes data such as parking rates and land use zoning.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 4.2.1.1 Spatial Information of Curb Parking. Based on our research design, the spatial information of curb parking is threefold: first,. ‧. the traffic zone, then, the road segment and finally, the exact coordinate of each space.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. We employ Taipei Parking Supply and Demand Analysis (臺北市停車供需調查報告) to obtain the information regarding traffic zone and Taipei Curb Parking Map Layer. al. n. v i n (臺北市路邊停車格位圖) to road segment data and the exact coordinate of Cgain h eboth ngchi U curb spaces. The following shows the details of each source of data. 1. Taipei Parking Supply and Demand Analysis (臺北市停車供需調查報告). Taipei Parking Supply and Demand Analysis is an annual report carried out by the Department of Transportation each year that covers half of the Taipei City. During the even-numbered years (i.e., 2012, 2014 and 2016), the survey pays attention to six northern districts — Datung, Zhongshan, Neihu, Songshan, Shilin and Beitou; whereas, in the odd-numbered years (i.e., 2013, 2015 and 2017), the government shifts the focus. 38. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(49) to the other six southern districts — Wanhua, Daan, Sinyi, Nangang, Zhongzheng, and Wenshan. However, rather than looking into parking dynamics just by districts, the unit of analysis in this survey is the traffic zone; they are more detailed divisions under a district. Traffic zones reflect local parking patterns because they were constructed on the basis of nearby land-use types, traffic flows, road width, the center of the neighborhood and so forth. After their establishment, each traffic zone is assigned with a type of land use such as the residential area in the city center, the commercial area with night markets on the outskirts and so forth. There were 374 traffic zones in 2015. 治政大in Beitou district are missing in in the six northern districts; whereas, four traffic zones 立 ‧ 國. 學. the map. While in 2016, the six southern districts comprised 312 traffic zones with no data missing. Therefore, our research focus on those 684 traffic zones with. ‧. comprehensive information.. y. Nat. District. Number of Traffic Zones. DaTong. 39. ZhongShan. 95. NeiHu. 59. SongShan. 40. ShiLin. 81. BeiTou. 62. WanHua. 31. DaAn. 92. XinYi. 57. NanGang. 27. ZhongZheng. 49. WenShan. 56. Total. 688. n. al. er. io. in Each District. sit. Table 4.1 Number of Traffic Zones. Ch. Source: Taipei Parking Supply and Demand Analysis (2016 & 2017).. engchi. i n U. v. Six Northern Districts Six Southern Districts. Figure 4.1 The Divide of Northern and Southern Districts 39. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(50) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Six Northern Districts Six Southern Districts Traffic Zones. Figure 4.2 Traffic Zones in Each District. 40. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(51) 2. Taipei Curb Parking Map Layer (臺北市路邊停車格位圖) Taipei Curb Parking Map is an open data issued irregularly from the Department of Transportation of Taipei. We retrieved the map on 29th June 2018, and there were 267,761 curb spaces in the city. The data comprised eight data fields including PKID, PKTYPE, PKTYPE1, ZONE, PKKIND, PKROAD, GEOM, and GEOM4326; see Table 4.2 for more detailed information. Although PKTYPE depicts 23 different types of on-street parking, we focus on curb parking for compact car (小型車) 11. Because different modes of transport result from different purposes of travel, embracing all. 治政 kinds of parking is prone to diverging our attention 大 to land. We, therefore, focus on one 立 ‧ 國. 學. of the most common types of curb spaces, the compact car, and attempt to see how pricing may influence the land use efficiency of curb parking.. Nat. PKID. Serial Number of Curb Parking. PKTYPE. Types of use of curb parking in code. PKKIND. er. al. Ex: 01-23. vCompact car, mid-sized car, fulli Ex: n C parking Types of use of curb explanation car, motorcycle, disabled space h e nwith g c h i U sized Ex: Parallel parking, angle parking, n. PKTYPE1. Notes. sit. Explanation. io. Notation. y. ‧. Table 4.2 Data Fields in Taipei Curb Parking Map Layer. Types of curb parking. and perpendicular parking.. ZONE. The located district. Twelve administrative districts in Taipei. PKROAD. The located road segment. Ex: Section 5, Civic Boulevard. GEOM. The coordinate of curb space. GEOM4326. The coordinate of curb space. 11. Refer to The World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84). All of the curb parking mentioned in subsequent research refers to curb spaces for compact car. 41. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(52) Table 4.3 briefly summarizes the spatial attributes of curb parking. Until June 2018, there are 50,608 curb spaces for compact car and 2,290 among which are without data of the district attribute. Hence, as shown in Table 4.3, there are only 48,318 curb spaces in total. In column 2, it is evident that the distribution of curb parking is uneven around the city. Each district should have approximately 4,027 parking spaces on average to balance between each other. Although most districts range within the allowance of plus and. 政治大 accounting for 16.3 percent 立 of curb spaces in the city. On the contrary, the number of. minus 20 percent, Neihu district over-scored the average by more than 95 percent,. ‧ 國. 學. curb spaces in Datong District takes up merely 3.6 percent, which is less than half of the average. Despite the uneven distribution pattern of curb parking, the average size. ‧. per curb space is somewhat equivalent (see in column 4). One curb space takes up about. y. Nat. n. er. io. al. sit. 10.21 square meter of land on average.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Curb Spaces Traffic Zones. Figure 4.3 Spatial Distribution of Curb Spaces in Daan District 42. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(53) Table 4.3 The Distribution Area of Curb Parking Spaces Average size of a curb space. (1). Total area of curb spaces (𝑚𝑚2 ) (2). (2)÷(1). BeiTou. 4,208. 42,772. 10.16. DaAn. 4,516. 45,173. 10.00. DaTong. 1,733. 17,819. 10.28. NanGang. 3,953. 40,379. 10.21. NeiHu. 7,864. 79,976. 10.17. ShiLin. 4,809. 50,396. 10.48. SongShan. 3,763. 39,292. 10.44. WanHua. 2,120. WenShan. 5,829. Number of curb spaces. District. Total. 59,538. 10.21. 2,174. 21,481. 9.88. 4,379. 44,215. 10.10. 2,970. 31,102. 48,318. 493,404. 10.47 10.21. ‧. ‧ 國. ZhongZheng. 10.03. 學. ZhongShan. 21,261. 立. XinYi. 政治大. Source: Taipei City Department of Transportation.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 43. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.

(54) 4.2.1.2 Parking Supply and Demand Parking Supply and Demand Survey (臺北市停車供需調查報告) conducts two types of analysis: the parking census on every road segments during weekdays and the sample survey on 5 percent of road segments during weekends. The data used here are from the parking census on 684 traffic zones in Taipei, and we retrieve only those for the compact car and at peak time. This survey contains the data on parking supply and demand. The data for parking. 政治大. supply can be subdivided into off-street parking and on-street parking. Under the on-. 立. street parking supply, there are two classifications: the marked parking spaces and the. ‧ 國. 學. unmarked parking spots. Marked parking spaces are the so-called curb spaces that we. ‧. have extensively discussed; whereas, the unmarked parking spaces specify those. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. available spots along the white 12 or yellow 13 lane at the curbside.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 4.4 The Types of Parking Spaces Include in the Parking Supply. According to Article 183 of the Traffic Sign Markings Installation Regulations (道路交通標誌標線號誌設置規則), the 15-centimeter white edge lane is the boundary of pavement. Based on Traffic Safety Regulation (道路交通安全規則), automobiles are allowed to parked outside the pavement edge 12. temporarily. All vehicles must be parked in the direction of the flow of traffic with the right-hand wheel parallel and within 40 centimeters to the edge of the roadway. 13 According to Article 168 of the Traffic Sign Markings Installation Regulations, parking on yellow lanes is prohibited from 7:00 am – 8:00 pm daily. In other words, parking on yellow lanes is permitted from 8:00 pm – 7:00 am. 44. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IMES.006.2018.F06.