行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫 成果報告
國際志願服務與學習之探究：以心理基模理論為基礎
研究成果報告(精簡版)
計 畫 類 別 ： 個別型 計 畫 編 號 ： NSC 99-2410-H-003-018- 執 行 期 間 ： 99 年 08 月 01 日至 100 年 11 月 30 日 執 行 單 位 ： 國立臺灣師範大學國際人力資源發展研究所 計 畫 主 持 人 ： 張女韋雯 計畫參與人員： 碩士班研究生-兼任助理人員：洪小惠 碩士班研究生-兼任助理人員：郭勇呈 講師級-兼任助理人員：黃春滿 博士班研究生-兼任助理人員：王芩芳 報 告 附 件 ： 出席國際會議研究心得報告及發表論文 公 開 資 訊 ： 本計畫可公開查詢中 華 民 國 101 年 02 月 19 日
中 文 摘 要 ： 在全球化的今日，國際服務已日益受到教育者的重視，用以 幫助參與者提昇專業能力及促進個人成長。相對的，隨著國 際社會中各國互依程度的提高，許多國家所面對的重大挑 戰，例如：人道危機援助、緊急災難救助、醫療照護、教育 系統建立等等，均需依賴國際人才共同合作才能予以緩解。 因應著這樣的需求，許多青年也選擇加入國際志願服務，一 方面貢獻所學，另一方面增加跨文化經驗以期自我學習與成 長。有鑑於服務對學習之重要性，本研究探討國際服務對學 習的影響。 本研究採取質性途徑，以國際青年志工之實際服務經驗為基 礎，以基模理論探討服務對參與者的改變。透過文獻、訪 談、文件分析等方法，本研究發現，國際服務中的跨文化的 事件與經驗，帶給當事者認知層次方面很大的挑戰，他們往 往必須重新調整基模結構，以理解新的生活經驗，並從過程 中擴大了認知的架構，產生轉化與學習。對這個歷程的認 識，有助於對國際服務學習的本質有更深入的瞭解，並作為 國際服務學習的方案規劃者之參考。 中文關鍵詞： 國際服務、服務學習、基模理論
英 文 摘 要 ： Empirical studies have found that participation in international service increases learners’
intercultural competence, language skills,
appreciation of cultural differences and tolerance for ambiguity. While previous studies suggest that international service experience is potentially transformative in nature, the present study examined international service experience and explored the factors that encourage transformation. Based on schema theory perspective, data were obtained from twelve international service participants by
observation, semi-structured interview, and written documents. Analysis of the data identified three components that enhanced schema transformation through in cross-cultural settings, including dramatic contrast, beyond the existing schema framework, and unknown self revealed.
英文關鍵詞： International service, service learning, schema theory, international volunteers
行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究計畫
成果報告(精簡)
國際志願服務與學習之探究：以心理基模理論為基礎
計畫類別：■個別型計畫
□整合型計畫
計畫編號：NSC98-2410-H-003-013
執行期間：2010 年 8 月 1 日至 2011 年 11 月 30 日
執行機構及系所：
國立臺灣師範大學國際人力資源發展研究所
計畫主持人：張媁雯
計畫參與人員：黃春滿、王芩芳、洪小慧、郭勇呈
成果報告類型：精簡報告
本計畫除繳交成果報告外，另須繳交以下出國心得報告：
■出席國際學術會議心得報告
處理方式：除列管計畫及下列情形者外，得立即公開查詢
中
華
民
國
101
年
1
月
30
日
國際志願服務與學習之探究：以心理基模理論為基礎
摘 要
在全球化的今日，國際服務已日益受到教育者的重視，用以幫助參與者提昇專業能 力及促進個人成長。相對的，隨著國際社會中各國互依程度的提高，許多國家所面對的 重大挑戰，例如：人道危機援助、緊急災難救助、醫療照護、教育系統建立等等，均需 依賴國際人才共同合作才能予以緩解。因應著這樣的需求，許多青年也選擇加入國際志 願服務，一方面貢獻所學，另一方面增加跨文化經驗以期自我學習與成長。有鑑於服務 對學習之重要性，本研究探討國際服務對學習的影響。 本研究採取質性途徑，以國際青年志工之實際服務經驗為基礎，以基模理論探討服 務對參與者的改變。透過文獻、訪談、文件分析等方法，本研究發現，國際服務中的跨 文化的事件與經驗，帶給當事者認知層次方面很大的挑戰，他們往往必須重新調整基模 結構，以理解新的生活經驗，並從過程中擴大了認知的架構，產生轉化與學習。對這個 歷程的認識，有助於對國際服務學習的本質有更深入的瞭解，並作為國際服務學習的方 案規劃者之參考。 關鍵詞：國際服務、服務學習、基模理論International Service and Learning: A Perspective of Schema Theory
Abstract
Empirical studies have found that participation in international service increases learners’interculturalcompetence,languageskills,appreciation ofculturaldifferences and tolerance for ambiguity. While previous studies suggest that international service experience is potentially transformative in nature, the present study examined
international service experience and explored the factors that encourage transformation. Based on schema theory perspective, data were obtained from twelve international service participants by observation, semi-structured interview, and written documents. Analysis of the data identified three components that enhanced schema transformation through in cross-cultural settings, including dramatic contrast, beyond the existing schema framework, and unknown self revealed.
International Service and Learning: A Perspective of Schema Theory
Introduction
International community service has been suggested as an active means to enhance participants’learning (Astin,Vogelgesang,Ikeda,Yee,2000;Berry & Chisholm,1999; Crabtree, 1998; Shumer & Duckenfield, 2004). In an international society, many challenges, such as humanitarian aid, disaster relief, medical assistance, literacy and education
development, rely on global collaboration between nations. International volunteers play an important role in this collaborative process. More and more young people are choosing to participate in international voluntary service with the hope of contributing their time and knowledge to a local community while gaining cross-cultural experience and personal growth.
Empirical studies have reported that participation in international service increases learners’interculturalcompetence,languageskills,appreciation ofculturaldifferences, tolerance for ambiguity, and experiential understanding of complex global problems
(Crabtree, 1998; Porter & Monard, 2001; Kiely, 2002). Studies have described the effects of internationalservicelearning on studentsas“transformative.”Forexample,Grusky (2000) stated that international service learning can fulfill its potential as a“transformational learning experienceforstudentsinforming subsequentstudy and careerchoices”(p.858). Hartman and Rola (2000) contend that, as a result of their international service learning experience,“studentsare transformed asindividuals”(p.21). Thus, it is often suggested that international service learning programs are potentially transformative in nature (Berry
&Chisholm, 1999; Grusky, 2000; Hartman & Rola, 2000; Kadel, 2002; Kiely, 2004; Roberts, 2003) and bring participants more fundamental changes. However, it does not clear why cross-cultural service enhances participant transformation. Therefore, the transformative process that occurs in cross-cultural settings remains an un-opened box, containing an unsolved mystery. As Miller and Gonzalez (2009) stated,
While it appears the international service-learning experience may have been more powerful in terms of personal/professional growth and questioning of previously held assumptions, further examination is needed to more thoroughly explore the potentially transformative nature of international field-based experiences (p.5).
Heeding such knowledge gap, this study explored the critical question of why international service is likely to produce transformative outcomes.
To accomplish this research goal, the social-psychological concept of schema theory (Piaget, 1975) wasused asthetheoreticalfoundation to examineparticipants’cross-cultural
experiences. The present study collected and analyzed interview data from thirteen Taiwanese international volunteers who went abroad to provide educational and medical assistance to local children or adolescents. Using the experience of the volunteers, this study examined the cognitive processes behind the transformative outcomes that occurred during international service.
Theoretical Framework
According to Piaget (1975), human development and environment cannot be separated. He suggested that the cognitive conflict between an existing schema and new information serves as a starting point for schema adjustment. Schemas develop by accumulation of life experiences. The knowledge of appropriate behaviors is stored in the schema and saved for application to similar situations. Therefore, the more experience people have regarding a specific situation, the more established their schema is for that particular situation, which allows them to more effectively and appropriately respond to a given situation (Beamer & Varner, 2003).
This process also occurs in cross-cultural settings. While a schema helps people respond more quickly and easily to stimuli in a familiar context, it often causes unexpected shocks, obstacles or even severe conflicts when people apply their existing schemas to different cultural contexts (Chang, 2009). In other words, these taken-for-granted frameworks often cause dilemmas in cross-cultural settings, particularly when they involve invisible and intangible values (Chaney & Martin, 2007; Jandt, 2004). During international encounters, Beamer and Varner (2003) suggest that, when people interact with a new culture, they create a projection regarding the target culture based on the information they collect and on their cultural framework. The projection serves as an initial stereotype (primary schema), but it inevitably varies from the true nature of the culture. The primary schema is gradually modified and moves closer to reality through more interaction with the new culture.
Literature Review
This section discusses international service and learning, as well as the schema-adjustment theory of cross-cultural adaptation.
International Service and Learning
Researchers have suggested that international service learning is transformative by nature. (Grusky, 2000; Hartman & Rola, 2000). International service involves cross-cultural adjustment. Compared with those who participate in domestic service learning, volunteers who provide international service often face more dramatic cultural differences in both their physical and psychical surroundings. However, compared with studies that have examined the impact of domestic service learning, research on international service learning is
relatively limited (Berry &Chisholm, 1999; Grusky, 2000; Hartman & Rola, 2000; Kadel, 2002; Kiely, 2004).
International service involves cross-cultural learning through which participants experience and then learn to respond to different behaviors, logic systems, communication styles, and world views (Beamer & Varner, 2003; Chaney & Martin, 2007; Mezirow, 2000). International service participants often face more challenges and greater cultural shock compared with tourists who merely visit the new culture for a short period of time. By contrast, international service participants must interact with local people, which includes exposure to local values and assumptions, to accomplish their missions. Deeper involvement often results in greater cultural differences or even conflicts, which also calls for increased criticalreflection (learning)regarding one’svaluesand theassumptionsembedded in one’s native culture.
Schema Adjustment in Cross-Cultural Settings
The concept of a schema is used to describe the process of human development (Piaget, 1975).Hebelieved thatan individual’sgeneralknowledge(schema)isbuiltin stages.Based on Piaget’sconcept,subsequentresearchers (Bartlett, 1932; Taylor & Crocker,1981)
elaborated on the schema concept, defining it as a mental structure, mental frame, or
cognitive structure that stores knowledge and is used by individuals to process information in their daily lives.
Schemas develop by accumulation of life experiences. For example, people learn dining etiquette gradually through daily meals, parental instruction, school education, and
observation of special occasions (e.g., business dinners, wedding banquets). The knowledge of appropriate behaviors is stored in the schema and saved for the similar occasions.
Therefore, the more lessons/experience people have regarding a specific situation, such as business etiquette, the more established their schema is for the particular situation, which allows them to more effectively and appropriately respond to the given situation (Beamer & Varner, 2003). In other words, an established schema does not come suddenly; rather, it is developed with accumulation of knowledge and experience. While a schema helps people respond more quickly and easily to stimuli in a familiar context, it often causes unexpected cultural shocks and obstacles when people apply their existing schemas to different cultural contexts.
Schemas form gradually by the accumulation of knowledge learned though interactions with various environmental stimuli (Nishida, 1999). When people use a framework of accumulated experience to respond to stimuli that is new, albeit similar, it often works effectively, which, in turn, strengthens the schema. However, when people apply a
well-established framework in a different cultural context and respond to new and completely unfamiliar stimuli based on the existing schema, unexpected outcomes, cultural shock, or
even severe conflicts often result (Chang, 2009). In cross-cultural settings, cultural shock and misunderstanding aresimilarto theconceptofa“disorienting dilemma”described by Mezirow’swork (1990)asatriggerfortransformativelearning.Lyon (2002)used theterm “culturaltrigger”to describeculturalshocksthatresultfrom cross-cultural encounters. The present study utilized the schema model of international encounters (Beamer, 1995; Beamer & Varner, 2003) as the theoretical framework to understand the cognitive processes that take place during international service learning.
Research Methods
Research Approach
The present study used a qualitative approach and applied the method of significant event review. Brookfield (1990) noted that a structured and deliberate review of a significant event is a useful way to encourage reflection. Through a review of the significant events experienced by the participants, the process encourages them to describe what happened, how they made sense of the incident, and what they learned from the significant experience. This review process invites participants to discover gaps in their understanding or capabilities, which may help them adopt a different perspective.
Research Participants and Data Collection
This study enlisted twelve international service volunteers. The participants included seven females and five males who had gone to Panama, Belgium, England, Iceland, Thailand, Germany, or Brazil for international service. Their work involved adolescent counseling, health care assistance, computer instruction, or teaching English. The participants ranged in age from 18 to 35 years.
This study utilized three data collection methods: semi-structured interviews,
participatory observation, and document review. The interviews were conducted with the help of a tape recorder. Significant event review or critical incident analysis was used to explore theschemaoftheparticipants’cross-cultural experiences and the meaning of those
experiences. The significant event could be both positive, i.e., an event that produced
enlightenment, and negative, i.e., an event that caused anxiety or distress (Hogard, 2007). The interviewees were invited to recall special events, unforgettable incidents, and impressive stories that occurred during their service, as long as these experiences had personal
significance to the participants (Bowie, Pope, & Lough, 2008). In addition to the interviews, participatory observation was also conducted. The authors participated in related conferences and activities in Taiwan, collecting relevant materials and documents. In addition, one author also volunteered asachild educatorin Thailand to deepen theresearch team’sunderstanding of both the service process and the learning that occurred during international service.
For analysis, we first transcribed the interviews and followed the techniques for coding, categorizing, and comparison, suggested by Struss and Cobin (1998). We broke the
transcription into small pieces, assigned codes, grouped similar concepts into categories, and identified themes that emerged from the empirical data. Since the schema theory was used as the framework for this study, the data and theoretical framework could be compared
throughout the analysis.
The authors participated in related conferences and activities in Taiwan, collecting relevant materials and documents, such as brochures, training materials, and service reports. In addition, one author also joined a one-week volunteer trip to a small village in Chiang Rai in the Northern Thailand. The researcher helped teach Chinese and assist agricultural work for local people. Although the time was constrained, during data analysis, the experience helped deepen theresearch team’sunderstanding oftheserviceprocessand helped them to choose categories that were closer to reality.
Research Findings
In the present study, international service and learning were mentioned by each
participant’srecounting oftheirinternationalserviceexperience.Differentstimulifrom new environments served as the triggers that led participants to recognize and re-examine their existing mindsets and schema frameworks. While the triggers varied among individuals, they often challenged theparticipants’cognitiveframework (schema),which madethelearning more fundamental. In the present study, the factors that triggered change were categorized into three major themes: (a) dramatic contrast, (b) beyond the existing schema framework, and (c) unknown self revealed.
Dramatic Contrast
The first type of trigger was in the format of contrast between the existing schema and conditions that differed dramatically from those of the home county. For example,
international service participants often reported that the living environment, scarce medical resources, or lack of access to education caused them to suddenly realize that these resources (sufficient food, computer equipment, education opportunities) had been greatly taken for granted at home. For example, one of the participants, Hong, was surprised and sad when she learned that the most important desire of the children she served was to visit a neighboring village, because the wish was so small compared to what children have in Taiwan. Another participant shared that local children stole his watch and sold it for a little money. He recounted the situation:
“Thewatch wasactually worth severalthousand,butthey sold itjustforonedollaras long asthey could getthemoney.Ireally feltlucky to livein Taiwan….how could the
gap (in finance)beso huge(Hao)?”
After experiencing these dramatic contrasts, some participants (Yu, Fan, Hao, An) reported that they became thriftier and cherished the resources and opportunities they received.
Significant contrasts also occurred regarding the pace of life. An interviewee, Jia, who volunteered in Panamasaid,“In contrastto peoplehere,peoplein Taiwan worry abouttoo many thingsincluding socialstatus,fame,benefit,etc.,which makeslifequitestressful.” From her perspective, the local people were more relaxed and neverpressed fortime.“Iam notasnervousasbeforeand Iam happierafterhaving learned theattitudehere,”shesaid. These contrasting values, similar to the cultural shock mentioned in the cross-cultural literature, caused the participants to re-evaluate their existing schema.
Beyond the Existing Schema Framework
In addition to dramatic contrast, what participants encountered was beyond their existing schema and called for the creation of a new category or solution. For example, at a tangible level, a female volunteer, Fan, recalled that, although she had suffered a serious attack from mosquitoes, what really shocked her was a bat falling from the ceiling. Another volunteer learned to plant his own vegetables because of the limited supply in the local area. An volunteer shared how he found a new way when he met difficulty. To establish a local
computer classroom, the volunteer, Hao, gave up his long wait for government assistance and learned to use direct emails to ask for second-hand computers. He also contacted a business association in Taiwan to help ship the second-hand computers along with its other products to Panama. Then he asked the secretary in the Embassy to get the computers from customs because the secretary was not required to pay the tax. Thus, the volunteer significantly reduced both the time and cost required to get the computers. However, because he did not have any past models for reference on how to accomplish his task, he figured out a way from scratch. He recounted the experience:
“Think.You need to think.When you meetdifficulties,you justthink whetherthereare solutions. This brought significant growth for international volunteers. If you see no way, you need to find away.”
When international volunteers were faced with something beyond their existing mental framework, they were often stunned and needed some time to make sense of the situation. However, because of these experiences, the volunteers often sensed that their worldview was extended and a broader perspective was obtained.
Unknown Self Revealed
During the international service process, the volunteers began to learn not only about their new environments, but also new facets of themselves. The participants found themselves demonstrating these characteristics to a greater extent than before.
For example, several participants were surprised when they learned that they would discriminate against people from different races, which was a trait they had not recognized whileliving in Taiwan.Oneintervieweesaid,“IthoughtIdid nothavediscrimination.” However, after he arrived in Middle America, working with people of color, he found the following to be true:
“[In Taiwan]wetended to pursue‘white’in skin colorand wereinclined to white people’sthinking style…..Ithoughtwedid nothavediscrimination….However, unconsciously, we discriminated. After being here and working with people of color for aperiod oftime,Ifeltpeoplewereallthesame…Igradually learned to break colors’ limitation [stereotype] and saw theirnatureinside.”
A similar situation occurred for other interviewees (Hong, An) who encountered people of different skin colors. The volunteers recognized their hidden discrimination, and then learned to remove it and accept diversity gradually.
In cross-cultural settings, new stimuli caused the volunteers to experience reactions that might never occur in their home environment. While the participants handled these new challenges in all aspects of their lives, they learned something new about themselves through their responses. Almost all interviewees indicated that they know themselves better because oftheirexperience.AsFan said,“itislikethatyou found yourselfin adifferentplace.”
Summary of the Findings
From many decades, psychologists and educators have realized that people learn as a result of interacting with their environment. Previous studies have also suggested that international service, compared with domestic service, is more likely to bring personal transformation (Grusky, 2000; Hartman & Rola, 2000; Kadel, 2002; Kiely, 2004). Through schema theory perspective, the present study extends the existing understanding of
international service and learning by further exploring the triggers and the mental processes that encourage individual transformation.
Discussion
When faced with the challenges of cross-cultural adaptation, individuals need to manage the competition between two forces—the mother culture and the new culture. Such
turbulence causes people to search for a new balance between the internal and external environments (Kim, 2005). Through this type of pull-and-push process, the contrasting and beyond-frame factors caused by cultural shock extends the existing cognitive schema. As the adjusted schema move closer to the reality of the target culture, people felt more adapted because they had more opportunities to respond to the local cues appropriately. When the adjusted schema is extended, people feel their perspective enlarge, which allows them to examine issues from different perspectives. In the present study, these types of changes
provided the participants a sense of self growth and transformation.
Another important trigger of transformation identified in the present study was
self-revelation. The conflicts that came from the participants themselves were as significant as those from the environment. As self-understanding increased,theparticipants’worldview also changed. This phenomenon is related to a concept suggested by the Johari Window. The Window, which was created by the cognitive psychologists Luft and Ingham (1955), includes four window panes according to what is known to oneself and to others: (a) public area, I know and othersknow;(b)privatearea,Iknow butothersdon’tknow;(c)blind area,Idon’t know butothersknow;and,(d)unknown area,Idon’tknow and othersdon’tknow.In the present study, the international service participants, by responding to various new life stimuli, observed parts of themselves that they had not known before(c or d). This recognition
extended theparticipants’understanding ofthemselvesand madethem feelmoreconfident. As reported by Hartman and Rola (2000), the result of international service-learning is that it gives the participants a sense of having been transformed as“individuals"(p.21).
Implications
While the international service-learning literature suggests that the experience often results in transformational learning, the present study explored the reasons behind this connection from a cognitive schema perspective. We found that service in international settingsoften resulted in adramaticcontrastbetween theparticipants’new and past experiences, and the volunteers also experienced many stimuli that were beyond their
existing cognitive frame. In addition, cross-cultural experience also revealed some new facets that the participants had not previously recognized about themselves. Each of these factors was included in the commonly mentioned concept—cultural shock, which was the force that caused theschemaadjustment.Asschemaschanged,theparticipants’perspectiveschanged, and transformation occurred.
These results have implications for international service-learning programmers. First, as participant growth involves an interaction between each participant’sbackground and the environment in which they serve, international service facilitators can help participants to review both the local culture and their own background prior to departure. A better understanding of both sides will encourage learners to begin the process of schema
adjustment. Second, while the various types of cultural shock, such as contrast, beyond the current mental framework, and unknown self revealed, often served as initiators of
transformational learning, mentoring and counseling systems should also be implemented. In so doing, guidance and assistance will be provided while participants apply their skills to service and explore a new environment, so that the quality of both service and learning can be more effectively enhanced.
Conclusion
While the international service learning literature suggests that the experience of international service often results in individual transformation, the present study, from a social-psychological perspective, found that service in international settings often resulted in adramaticcontrastbetween theparticipants’new and pastexperiencesand incidentsthat went beyond their existing cognitive frameworks. In addition, cross-cultural experience also revealed some new facets that the participants had not previously recognized about
themselves. Each of these factors served to initiate schema adjustment and self-revelation. Whileschemaschanged and moreunknown selfwasrevealed,theorientation ofone’s worldview changed, which made the individual transformation and learning more likely to occur.
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國科會補助專題研究計畫成果報告自評表
1. 請就研究內容與原計畫相符程度、達成預期目標情況作一綜合評估
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3. 請依學術成就、技術創新、社會影響等方面，評估研究成果之學術
或應用價值（簡要敘述成果所代表之意義、價值、影響或進一步發
展之可能性）
（以 500 字為限）
在全球化的今日，國際社會中各國互依程度的提高，許多國家所面對的重大挑 戰，例如：人道危機援助、緊急災難救助、醫療照護、教育系統建立等等，均需依 賴國際人才共同合作才能予以緩解。因應著這樣的需求，許多青年也選擇加入國際 志願服務，一方面貢獻所學，另一方面增加跨文化經驗以期自我學習與成長。有鑑 於服務對學習之重要性，本研究即是探討國際服務對學習的影響。 本研究以社會心理領域的「基模理論」作為主要之理論架構，並以台灣從事國 際志願服務之青年為對象，了解服務經驗，並探究促進轉化學習的因素。研究發現 國際服務有助於在本質上具有能改變參與者、產生轉化性的學習的特性。藉由對個 人心理認知層面的探討，以及對這個歷程的認識，有助於對國際服務學習的本質有 更深入的瞭解。本研究提供國際服務學習方案對參與者之影響，以作為相關方案規 劃者及參與人員之參考。國科會補助專題研究計畫出席國際學術會議心得報告
日期： 101 年 1 月 30 日一、參加會議經過
2011 年「跨文化研究國際雙年研討會」 (7thBiennial Conference International Academy for Intercultural Research) 是該學會第七次舉辦國際型研討會。今年 度於新加坡舉行，會議時間是從 2011 年 7 月 24 日至 7 月 28 日，共計五天。 7 月 24 點當天早上 9 點開始有為期一天的工作坊，下午 5:30 工作坊結束後， 研究會正式開幕，展開了為期 4 天半的國際研討會。主辦單位為 International Academy for Intercultural Research，長年致力於跨文化的研究與推廣，今年重 要的主題之一是文化之間的衝突解決。 研討會期間大會安排了多場主題演講、22 場分組報告、10 場座談。每一 場發表時間約 1 個小時半，共有 5 個發表人，每人 15 分鐘，最後由引言人代 領綜合討論 15 分鐘，場與場之間有半小時 Coffee Break 進行交流。而大會於 第三日晚上將舉辦圓桌討論會，每位參與者可依自己興趣自由參加主題小組 的討論會，更加深參加者的認識。 在第四天上午，大會安排視訊會議，與美國學者進行討論。晚間則是全 體參與者的聚餐會。研討會在 7 月 28 日中午的閉會茶會中告一段落。
計畫編號
NSC 99-2410-H-003 -018
計畫名稱
國際志願服務與學習之探究：以心理基模理論為基礎
出國人員
姓名
張媁雯
服務機構
及職稱
國立臺灣師範大學國際
人力資源發展研究所
副教授
會議時間
2011 年 7 月 24日至 28 日會議地點
新加坡
會議名稱
(中文)跨文化研究國際雙年研討會
(英文)7
thBiennial Conference International Academy
for Intercultural Research
發表論文
題目
(中文) 國際志工之適應與社區意識
(英文)
Overseas Adaptation: Foreigner Volunteering and Sense of Community二、與會心得
本次參與國際跨文化學術研討會，收獲相當豐富。在跨文化的前題下， 所有與會者的座談討論，不僅內容多元且開放，更是一場難得的國際交流， 由於學者來自世界各地不同領域，不同的國家學術發表，議題廣泛且增進學 術的國際視野。
此次大會設計的活動很活潑多元，除了有主題演講、小組報告，也利用視訊 科技和遠在夏威夷的資深學者對話。並且，將全體成員分為幾個小組，舉辦 圓桌討論，讓參與的學者能更加認識彼此，對於研究的領域也有機會深入討 論。此外，用餐時間與閉幕茶會，更是與會人士交流的時機，藉由不同國家 的經驗交流，除了在學術上的議題討論，更豐富此趟行程的跨文化之旅。參 與這樣國際大型的研討會，整個活動中，有很多活動細節是國人舉辦類似活 動很好的參考。
三、參觀活動
7 月 27 日傍晚主辦單位安排所有參與者在當地景點的參與的晚餐。從研 討會場搭車前往新加坡著名的 The Jewel Box，由於位處高點，可觀察海港風 景，在晚宴後，搭乘纜車參觀全景。之後，再趨車前往海洋公園觀賞簡短的 表演。主辦單位除了安排學術活動，也納入當地的觀光活動，以及專業性的藝 術表演，這對於國外來的參加者能在很短時間內，看到新加坡的特色與發展， 讓一場學術研討會擴大為對該國的認識與瞭解。
目前，台灣也在積極加強會展產業，爭取國際會議與活動，如果能用心 將活動與城市的多元性與專業性在外國旅客簡短的行程中，作一適切的安排 與結合，便可以透過國際化的活動為台灣帶來多方面的效益。
四、建議
新加坡是一個相當多元的社會，不同的種族與語言同時存在。此次參與 研討會，除了瞭解了跨文化研究的新趨勢，也於研討會參與多場小組交流， 增加與其他參加者之認識，也作為未來國內舉辦研討會之參考。另外，國際 會議結合城市簡短會精緻的介紹，增加國際與會者對城市發展與歷史的瞭 解，也是相當值得學習與推廣的作法。五、攜回資料名稱及內容
論文摘要: Book of Abstract 其中包括所有的議程及發表報告之摘要六、其他：以下茲附上研討會論文摘要
Overseas Adaptation: Foreigner Volunteering and Sense of Community Extended Abstract
Research Background and Purposes
Along with the advance of technology and economic development, global mobility has become a prerequisite for the success of an international business. Influenced by today’s climate of globalization, more people have traveled around the world to expand their business or for advanced study. Faced with a new cultural context, these sojourners often meet new challenges and use different approaches to adjust their lives
in the new environment. One of the approaches used by some foreign residents was to become active voluntary members in the new social environment. Such voluntary activities provided a channel for many foreigners to gradually connect and adjust to the local cultural context. While in practice volunteering has been used as a way to engage people from different cultural backgrounds, sojourners’motivation for volunteering and its potential influence on their cultural adaptation have not been well examined. To understand this process, this research explored foreigners’motivation to be volunteers and how the volunteering experience influenced their adaptation in the new cultural environment. The research participants were the Western residents in Asian cultural context. The concept in social psychology, sense of community, was utilized as the theoretical framework to examine foreigners’volunteering experience and cultural adaptation.
Research Methods
The study uses qualitative approach in order to establish an explorative account on the experience of Western volunteers in Taiwan. The researchers took a position of an
active learner (Cresswell, 1994), in a sense that they have a strong motivation to know
thestory ofparticipantsatthesametimeavoiding the‘expert’perspective.
The research participants in this study met two criteria: (a) they were Western migrants who worked in Taiwan, (b) they engaged in volunteering in their leisure time. Volunteers from two Taiwanese non-profit organizations, Animals Taiwan and Taiwan Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, were enlisted as participants.
For data collection, both semi-structured interview and document review were used. All the collected data were analyzed through reviewing, coding, and categorizing. The theoretical framework was used for comparison in the analysis process.
Major Findings
Through the research, it appears that some of these interviewed foreign volunteers felt a need for participation that they would not feel in their home countries. Their motivation included local involvement and meaningful engagement. This search for a way to participatecan signify an attemptto manageone’sfreetimein a meaningful way in a new social environment. Number of aspects of their volunteering experience showed that volunteering influenced their general well-being and their perception of the new culture and local people. Their experience was divided into two categories, including psychological adaptation, and socio-cultural adaptation (Figure 1).
Cultural Strangers Local Involvement Meaningful Engagement Volunteering Adaption Psychological Social-cultural Sense of Community
Figure 1. Foreigners’Volunteering and Cultural Adaptation Psychological adaptation
Psychological adaptation is related to individual’swell-being and satisfaction. A sense of community emerged when they feel that people involved in the organization share similar values. In addition, becoming a volunteer means establishing a psychological contract with the organizations that should be realized in terms of psychological fulfilment and satisfaction.
Socio-cultural adaptation
Socio-culturaladaptation refersto an individual’sability to “fitin”with thehost society and function within in with ease and ability. From socio-cultural perspective, volunteering offers opportunities to enhance their social capital, and through an online community itenablesvolunteersto maintain participation in theorganization’sdoings.
In conclusion, this study found that through volunteering participation, a sense of community emerged, and it enhanced sojourners’connection and adaption to a new cultural context.
國科會補助計畫衍生研發成果推廣資料表
日期:2012/02/19國科會補助計畫
計畫名稱: 國際志願服務與學習之探究：以心理基模理論為基礎 計畫主持人: 張女韋雯 計畫編號: 99-2410-H-003-018- 學門領域: 社會教育無研發成果推廣資料
99 年度專題研究計畫研究成果彙整表
計畫主持人：張女韋雯 計畫編號： 99-2410-H-003-018-計畫名稱：國際志願服務與學習之探究：以心理基模理論為基礎 量化 成果項目 實際已達成 數（被接受 或已發表） 預期總達成 數(含實際已 達成數) 本計畫實 際貢獻百 分比 單位 備 註 （ 質 化 說 明：如 數 個 計 畫 共 同 成 果、成 果 列 為 該 期 刊 之 封 面 故 事 ... 等） 期刊論文 1 1 100% 研究報告/技術報告 0 0 100% 研討會論文 0 0 100% 篇 論文著作 專書 0 0 100% 申請中件數 0 0 100% 專利 已獲得件數 0 0 100% 件 件數 0 0 100% 件 技術移轉 權利金 0 0 100% 千元 碩士生 2 2 100% 博士生 1 1 100% 博士後研究員 0 0 100% 國內 參與計畫人力 （本國籍） 專任助理 0 0 100% 人次 期刊論文 1 1 100% 研究報告/技術報告 0 0 100% 研討會論文 2 2 100% 篇 論文著作 專書 0 0 100% 章/本 申請中件數 0 0 100% 專利 已獲得件數 0 0 100% 件 件數 0 0 100% 件 技術移轉 權利金 0 0 100% 千元 碩士生 0 0 100% 博士生 0 0 100% 博士後研究員 0 0 100% 國外 參與計畫人力 （外國籍） 專任助理 0 0 100% 人次其他成果
