臺灣高中生對英語教科書中的圖文關係之概念

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學英語學系碩. 士. 論. 文. Master Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 臺灣高中生對英語教科書中的圖文關係之概念. Taiwanese Senior High School Students’ Conceptions of Textual and Visual Connection in English Textbooks. 指導教授：張珮青. 博士. Advisor: Dr. Pei-Chin Chang 研究生：尤文喬 Graduate: Wen-Chiao Yu. 中華民國一百零七年四月 April 2018.

(2) 摘要現今人們經常運用不同的符號資源來達到有意義的溝通，對英語學習者而言，發展多模態閱讀能力是非常重要的。隨著多模態的研究漸漸受到重視，外語學習教材如教科書中，也越來越趨向融入多樣圖文資源。雖然台灣的十二年國教的教育政策下，英語教學強調融入不同的符號資源，且英語教學越來越強調多模態的呈現方式，但是英語學習領域內卻鮮少探討學生對教科書圖文資源的概念。有鑑於此，研究台灣學生對於教材內圖文關係的概念實屬必要。本研究旨在探究台灣高二學生對於教科書中圖文關係之概念，並進一步比較不同英文程度之學生的圖文概念異同。本研究採用現象學分析法，對 16 名高二學生進行訪談，一半學生來自社會組的班級，另一半學生來自語言實驗班。學生們對訪談的回答為主要分析主體，其對圖文關係有關的回答將進行編碼，並將類似的概念歸納於同類，逐漸形成本研究探討學生圖文關係的主要概念大類。本研究有以下發現：(1) 學生的圖文概念有五大類由低而高、由簡略到進階層次排列為：僅文字閱讀、視覺輔助閱讀、閱讀圖文尋找文中事實、閱讀圖文以理解文章，以及閱讀圖文以批判分析，(2) 五類概念按照認知程度，有等級的不同，但並無質性的不同，(3) 五類概念中，閱讀圖文以理解文章所占比例最高，(4) 學生英文程度對其圖文概念並無直接的關聯。學生雖然有多樣的圖文概念，但為了增進英文學習，教師應提升學生的圖文意識、鼓勵學生探討課文中的圖文關係以強化學生的圖文概念，英文教材也必須提高圖文關聯性以符合學生語言學習需求。期望這些建議能為未來本國英文學習領域略盡棉薄之力。關鍵字：多模態、圖文關係、學生概念、高中英文教科書. i.

(3) ABSTRACT In an era where communication is saturated with various modes, it is crucial for EFL learners to cultivate multimodal literacy by developing the ability to read multimodal texts. For years, the concept of multimodality has been widely accepted in EFL contexts. EFL learning materials such as textbooks, also involve various modes. In Taiwan, understanding the integrative connection of different modes has been gaining importance in the curriculum of 12-year compulsory education. Though teaching and learning have become more multimodal because of the commonly used visual and textual modes, learners’ views of multimodality have not been well explored yet. Therefore, the purpose of the study aims to investigate Taiwanese high school students’ conceptions of textual and visual connections in English textbooks. The data were collected from semi-structured interviews with 16 students from two proficiency groups, and the responses were analyzed and coded through phenomenographic method. Then, the conceptions of visual and textual connection in textbooks emerged through rounds of categorization. The major findings are summarized as follows: (1) the analysis revealed five categories of conceptions, including Read for textual information, Read with engaging visual aids, Read bi-modally for facts, Read bi-modally to comprehend and Read bimodally and critically. These conceptions were hierarchically ordered based on the textual and visual awareness. The hierarchy of conceptions was ranked from less developed to more advanced. (2) The conceptions displayed a hierarchy of different cognitive levels. (3) Among all of the conceptions, Read bi-modally to comprehend accounted for the most percentage. (4) The analyses of interview results suggested that there was a slight connection between the participants’ conceptions of textual and visual resources used in English textbooks and their proficiency levels. This study yields significant implications for EFL instructors. In order to enhance EFL reading ii.

(4) comprehension, it is vital to raise learners’ awareness of textual and visual connection and promote reading bi-modally. Based on the findings, some pedagogical implications are proposed: (1) EFL learners’ bimodal awareness should be elevated to develop multimodal literacies. (2) Bi-modal connections in textbooks should be strengthened so that the visual and textual resources can complement each other to fully realize meanings. It is expected that the present study can shed light on how EFL students conceptualized textual and visual connection in learning materials.. Key Words: Conceptions, Multimodality, Senior High School English Textbooks, Textual and Visual Connection. iii.

(5) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my heartfelt thanks and appreciation to a great number of people without whose support and assistance, this study would not have been completed. I am deeply indebted to my advisor, Dr. Pei-Chin Chang, whose guidance and encouragement throughout the research process has enabled me to grow in confidence as a researcher. Throughout the year, she provided reassurance and insights despite numerous obstacles. I am also very grateful to Dr. Hsi-Nan Yeh and who, as a committee member, offered valuable opinions and pointed out several directions to improve my study. Special thanks to Dr. Shao-Ting Hung, who offered several concrete directions for improvement. I am truly grateful for their assistance and guidance without which this study could not be completed and improved. Moreover, many thanks to my classmates for their helpful insights and suggestions. Also, I wish to express my appreciation to my school for providing me with access to the young people as participants in the study. Finally, my deepest gratitude goes to my family, whose timely encouraging words nurtured me and set me on my path of working on my thesis. Thank you for your patience, understanding, support and unwavering love.. iv.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS 摘要................................................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................viii CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1. Background of the Study ....................................................................................... 1 Motivation of the Study ......................................................................................... 5 Purpose of the Study .............................................................................................. 7 Research Questions ................................................................................................ 8 CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................ 10. An Overview ........................................................................................................ 10 Theoretical Framework of Multimodality ........................................................... 10 Kress’ Multimodality Theory ....................................................................... 11 Modal Affordance ........................................................................................ 11 Contributions of Incorporating Multimodal Learning Materials into Language Learning ...................................................................................... 13 Limitations and Constraints of Incorporating Multimodal Learning Materials into Language Learning ............................................................... 17 Conceptions of Learning ...................................................................................... 19 Definitions of Conceptions .......................................................................... 20 Hierarchical Categories of Conceptions of Learning................................... 21 Surface and Deep Conceptions .................................................................... 23 Factors Influencing Conceptions ................................................................. 24 Conceptions and Academic Performance .................................................... 27 v.

(7) CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY .................................................................. 30 Participants ........................................................................................................... 30 Phenomenographic Method ................................................................................. 33 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 33 Disqualified Ideas ........................................................................................ 37 Calculation of Ideas ..................................................................................... 38 CHAPTER FOUR. RESULTS ................................................................................... 40. A Hierarchy of Conceptions................................................................................. 40 The Influence of Proficiency on the Student’s Conceptions of Textual and Visual Connection in the Eleventh Grade English Textbooks ........................................ 49 Summary of Chapter Four ................................................................................... 55 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .......................................... 56 Bimodal Connection as Promoting Comprehension ............................................ 56 Slight Influence of Proficiency on Learners’ Views of Textual-Visual Connection .............................................................................................................................. 59 Conceptions in Hierarchical Order ...................................................................... 61 Different Media with Different Textual-Visual Connections ............................... 61 Pedagogical Implications ..................................................................................... 63 Limitation and Suggestions for Future Research ................................................. 64 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 64 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 66 APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................. 76 APPENDIX B .............................................................................................................. 78. vi.

(8) LIST OF TABLES Table 1. The Academic Backgrounds of the Participants ........................................ 31 Table 2. Frequencies of Conceptions of Textual and Visual Connection in the Eleventh Grade English Textbooks. .......................................................... 41 Table 3. Each Student’s Conceptions ...................................................................... 48 Table 4. Frequency of Conceptions in Two Groups ................................................ 50 Table 5. Percentage of Each Conception in Each Group ......................................... 52. vii.

(9) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Two Groups’ Percentages of Conceptions ............................................... 51 Figure 2. The Percentage of Conceptions in LG Group .......................................... 53 Figure 3. The Percentage of Conceptions in RSS Group ........................................ 54. viii.

(10) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Reading has been considered a fundamental and significant part of English as Foreign Language (EFL) learning. Reading is also a cognitive process that requires interactive operations of both top-down and bottom-up approaches, with which readers are able to predict, hypothesize, activate prior knowledge, elicit and decode meanings from texts (Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003). Nowadays, it is imperative to expand what it means to be literate (Kress, 2004; New London Group, 1996). Language-image relation has thus been a prominent research focus in EFL reading (Jewitt, 2005). Leveraging visual image is also part of the competence indicators listed in the K-12 English national curriculum guidelines in Taiwan. The ability to comprehend and interpret multimodal texts has been an integral part of the national curriculum in which EFL learners are supposed to develop visual reading abilities to interpret multimodal texts. Yet, it may be challenging for some EFL learners to comprehend multimodal texts in the target language (Ajayi, 2012; Bezemer& Jewitt, 2010; Guichon& McLornan, 2008). In addition, their lack of motivation may be attributed to lengthy passages, the absence of reading goals and few coping strategies (Horiba & Fukaya, 2015). Such difficulties in EFL reading may induce higher level of learning anxiety and may consequently inhibit second language acquisition (Matsuda & Gobel, 2004; Saito & Horwitz, 1999). To address the challenging reading tasks and elevate reading motivation, EFL learners are encouraged to leverage different semiotic resources to interpret multimodal texts (Unsworth, 2014). Conventionally, the verbal texts dominated over the visual elements attached aside in the process of reading a text. Still, in light of the changing landscape of EFL learning contexts and growing multiliteracies practices in. 1.

(11) recent decades, verbal texts may not dominate over its visual counterpart (New London Group, 1996). Rather, possibilities of multimodal teaching and learning practices are on the rise and multimodal approaches have become a growing focus in EFL contexts (Ajayi, 2009; Jewitt, 2008; Kress, 2000; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996; New London Group, 1996; Royce, 2002; Unsworth, 2001). As language-image interplay in texts has influenced the way people used to read, EFL learners need to reconceptualize the role of image and textual and visual relations in texts (Unsworth, 2006). The rising concept of multimodal communication entails a need for more multimodal approach in EFL contexts (Royce, 2002). Similar to how language is used in everyday communication in which a wide range of modes are used to fully realize meanings, meanings are more likely and effectively to get across when more than one mode jointly contribute to the realization of meanings (O'Halloran, 2008; Royce, 2002; Unsworth, 2006; Van Leeuwen, 2005). As meanings are carried out through a repertoire of multiple modes including speech, writing, gaze, body language, etc., so do visual and textual modes in learning materials. That is, both words (textual) and images (visual) deployed in multimodal texts may work in tandem to promote understanding of texts, enhance reading comprehension and provide an alternative reading path (Ajayi, 2009; Jewitt, 2008; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996; Unsworth, 2001). Visual images enable EFL learners to comprehend and grasp the meaning of texts as well as guess the meanings of vocabulary and texts based on visual cues (Omaggio, 1979; Wright, 1989). Unsworth (2001) points out that it is necessary for EFL to understand how texts and images jointly construct a better picture of the meanings. And EFL learners may benefit from understanding how visual and textual modes intertwine to make meanings (Royce, 2007). Moreover, it has been a continuous focus regarding how language learning. 2.

(12) materials should be developed to enhance EFL learning for learners with different learning styles (Gardner, 2006; Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2011). Language learning can be optimized when it is learned through multimodal approaches (Hibbing & RankinKrickson, 2003; Jewitt, 2008; Kress, 2000; Kress, 2005; New London Group, 1996; Royce, 2002). When people communicate with each other, they tend to get meanings across with the help of modes they consider effective in the given contexts (Kress, 2004). In multimodal language learning contexts, learners are supposed to engage various senses to effectively unlock the semiotic potential of multimodality in texts to make meanings (Hibbing & Rankin-Krickson, 2003). EFL learners may enhance reading abilities by capitalizing on their visual intelligence, the ability to perceive elements to create mental image, and are able to tap into their strength in visual domain to develop other intelligences (Arnold & Fonseca, 2009; Gardner, 2006). Visual elements may serve as comprehensible inputs which assist language learners to activate background knowledge, retrieve information and make meanings (Arnold & Fonseca, 2009; Cappello & Walker, 2016; Pan & Pan, 2009). In addition, while different modes in multimodal texts compete for readers’ attention, visual mode invites readers to actively construct meanings the moment readers browse the page, encourages different reading paths in printed texts and serves as instructional scaffold for language learners to acquire complex and academic vocabulary and text structures (Cappello & Walker, 2016; Carney & Levin, 2002; Kress, 2000). Visual components in EFL texts are interwoven into the textbooks in forms of charts, graphics, pictures, images and illustrations, and these visual components are helpful in expanding the meanings of words and in enhancing comprehension of texts (Jewitt, 2005). To make sense of the multimodal texts, EFL learners process relevant words and images as well as text-image relation to build connections with their prior knowledge. Verbal and visual modes jointly and simultaneously realize meanings and may facilitate EFL. 3.

(13) reading comprehension (Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003; Kost, Foss & Lenzini, 1999; Kramsch & Andersen, 1999; Royce, 2002). Third, in EFL contexts, textbooks remain a staple in global school curricula (Wang, Lin & Lee, 2011). One specific area of research that has received prominent attention in recent years is a focus on text-image relations in textbooks analysis (Ajayi, 2009; Chen, 2010; Early & Marshall, 2008). With the growing interest in different modalities in education, textbooks are no longer dominated by a single mode (Stokes, 2002). Instead, to create higher level of reader involvement, high school textbooks have been evolving and updated by tapping into multimodal design (e.g., image, color and layout) where visual mode contributes to a great part of meaning construction (Ajayi, 2012; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996). Adolescent EFL learners need special instructions that equip them with skills and desires to interpret complex texts (Alvermann, 2002). High school textbooks in Taiwan include multimodal texts and consist of a wide variety of topics, some of which contain general topics while others involve domain-specific information (Chen & Chen, 2013). Each lesson has different layouts and corresponding images. For example, when reading an expository reading passage on an unfamiliar topic like the use of coltan and African gorillas, learners may skim the texts and try to attain relevant information or concept from the salient images or pictures on the page. In addition, when reading the lesson of introduction of Peanuts, a well-received comic strip worldwide, readers may figure out the messages behind the comic strip by decoding both the meanings of the continuous boxes of visual elements (sketches and comic characters) and the verbal dialogues in the bubbles. It may be impossible for EFL learners to effectively comprehend the multimodal text by merely interpreting the verbal texts alone. Incorporating multiple modes into EFL reading allows richer and deeper meanings to be derived.. 4.

(14) Still, the pressing question at present is whether EFL learners realize multimodal potential in language learning and take advantage of the multimodal texts to enhance reading skills. EFL high school students, especially struggling readers, often find themselves unable to crack the code-like passages of EFL reading texts (Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003). It is difficult for struggling EFL learners to develop reading abilities based simply on verbal mode alone. For instance, in Taiwan, high school students are expected to expand their vocabulary size from 2000 to 7000 words within three years and adapt themselves to reading long passages to prepare themselves for the college entrance exams. Vocabulary size of this scale along with lengthier reading texts in greater complexity are two of the major challenges EFL high school students face (Nation, 2006; Schmitt, Jiang & Grabe, 2011). EFL learners at high school stage are also expected to develop reading strategies and familiarize themselves with a lot more writing styles and texts with more complexity (National Academy for Educational Research, 2015). Nevertheless, EFL learners receiving reading texts with single mode alone have less retention of vocabulary and understanding (Kost, Foss & Lenzini, 1999; Yanguas, 2009). In all, the connection of multiple modes in reading texts has taken a greater role in EFL learning. Multimodal reading approach may be one of the promising solutions to address the reading problems and challenges high school learners are faced with. Raising EFL learners’ visual awareness not only helps to develop reading abilities and useful strategies but also enhances understandings when EFL learners work with complex texts.. Motivation of the Study This study, aiming to explore Taiwanese senior high school students’ conceptions of visual-textual connection in English textbooks, was undertaken based on the. 5.

(15) following reasons. To begin with, understanding students’ conceptions enables instructors to identify what students may lack so that instructors may be able to address problems. In Taiwan, high school students are required to engage in English reading and the main teaching material is English textbooks. A great body of research on multimodal designs and practices has focused on the effectiveness of multimodality in second and foreign language acquisition (Bezemer & Kress, 2016; Guichon & McLornan, 2008) and how EFL learners utilized multimodal resources to create, compose, and make meanings (Ajayi, 2009; Cheng & Tsai, 2012). Still, even with the beneficial support of multimodal elements in learning materials as textbooks, visual images have not been fully recognized and emphasized as an effective way to enhance language learning by learners themselves (Liu, 2013; Serafini, 2013). Some research has investigated the role of textual and visual connection in EFL reading, especially from the viewpoint of EFL learners themselves (Ajayi, 2009; Liu, 2013; Serafini, 2013; Unsworth, 2014). Previous research failed to investigate why learners held different attitudes toward the same learning materials. Nor did previous research examine how learners recognized and interpreted the visual and the textual elements as well as the text-image relations in reading. Hence, it is important to understand how ESL learners conceptualize textual and visual connection that interact and complement each other in textbooks. Second, though conceptions research is mostly conducted in higher education contexts (Eklund-Myrskog, 1998; Tsai, 2009; Zheng, Liang, Yang & Tsai, 2016), this type of studies should be carried out in earlier educational contexts to gain more insights on students’ developing conceptions. Since conceptions of learning are highly related to learners’ motivation, learning approaches and ultimately the quality of learning outcomes (Hofer, 2001; Marton & Säljö, 1976; Ohata & Fukao, 2014; Schommer, 1990), more emphasis should be placed on high school students’. 6.

(16) conceptions of language learning. The call for such effort echoes the dominant pedagogical belief of learner-centeredness; that is, students are the center of language learning and that learners should be able to construct meanings from new information and prior experiences (Jonassen, 2000). Furthermore, though in the era of multiliteracies and multimedia, students’ conceptions of image-text connection in their English learning materials have not received enough research attention. With the increasing importance of multiple modes incorporated in language learning, it is essential to explore EFL learners’ understandings of visual and textual modes so as to guide them to develop sophisticated conceptions because leveraging various modal resources in textbooks may enhance EFL learners’ reading comprehension. In sum, is vital to examine how EFL learners conceptualize image-text connection in reading textbooks.. Purpose of the Study There has been a burgeoning research body of the development of students’ conceptions of learning in general (Cheng & Tsai, 2012; Kuhn, 2001; Kuhn, Cheney & Weinstock, 2000; Saljo, 1979; Tsai, 2009) and the benefits of integrating multimodality in classroom (Ajayi, 2009; Bezemer & Kress, 2016; Cheng & Tsai, 2016; Guichon & McLornan, 2008). Though contemporary literacy teaching and learning practices rely primarily on verbal mode, it should be noted that such traditional literacy teaching and learning practices are inadequate for EFL learners (Gilakjani, 2012; Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003; Kost, Foss & Lenzini, 1999; Kramsch & Andersen, 1999; Royce, 2002). Although most EFL textbooks are compiled with visual and textual resources, it is surprising that few studies examined how students viewed the modes in textbooks at hand and how students with different proficiencies conceptualized visual and textual connection in textbooks.. 7.

(17) This present study focuses on learners’ conceptions of visual and textual resources in language learning texts. Since the visual and textual modes are the two most frequently deployed modes in English textbooks, examining learners’ conceptions of visual-textual connection may guide EFL learners to improve English reading comprehension. In addition, there is a lack of attention to how EFL learners comprehend a multimodal text in which visual and textual modal resources coconstruct to make meanings. The benefits of integrating the visuals into language learning have not been fully recognized yet. While some research on conceptions (Tsai, 2004; Zheng, Liang, Yang & Tsai, 2016) adopted a quantitative approach to assessing students’ conceptions, conceptions of learning in the context of foreign language learning may be better assessed in qualitative manners. For one thing, conceptions are contextually dependent, so qualitative descriptions are likely to reveal nuance differences between context-bound views. For another, the present study aims to explore a rather uncharted area (i.e. visual and textual connection in English textbooks), so there is little ready and predetermined categories found in the literature. Therefore, by taking phenomenographic method, the study is more likely to assess possible dimensions of conceptions without excluding any potential views held by the learners. The explorations of learners’ conceptions of textual and visual connection in language learning may be helpful for understanding how learners read, comprehend and interpret bimodal texts.. Research Questions The present study aims to investigate high school students' conceptions of textual and visual connection in the eleventh graders’ English textbooks in Taiwan. This study will be guided by the following research questions:. 8.

(18) 1.. What are Taiwanese senior high school students’ conceptions of textual and. visual connection in the eleventh grade English textbooks gained from the phenomenographic method? 2.. How do different English proficiencies regulate Taiwanese senior high. school students’ conceptions?. 9.

(19) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW. An Overview The study sets out to explore how EFL learners think about the role of textual and visual relations in multimodal textbooks. The first section provides an overview of the theoretical framework of multimodality in language learning as well as studies applying multimodal approach to language learning. The second section reviews the framework of conceptions research and the influences of conceptions on EFL learning processes and performances.. Theoretical Framework of Multimodality Multimodality refers to an approach through which different semiotic resources co-deploy and co-contextualize a text (Kress, 2000). It conceptualizes a way to communicate via the interplay of more than one mode of semiotic resources used to project meaning (Kress, 2000; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2001). Drawing on Halliday and Hasan’s (2014) systemic functional linguistics (SFL) of three metafunctions of language, Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996) proposed that the three metafunctions could be applied to analyze images as well. They suggested that language and the visuals had the potential to realize the same social meaning, but “each mode inherently has a different potential for meaning-making” (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996, p.39). Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996) reframed the terms of metafunctions (ideational, interpersonal, and textual) into representational, interactive and compositional meanings to interpret visual elements in communication. The significance of images in language learning is further emphasized by Kress (2000). Kress (2000) adopted the semiotic theory as a theoretical basis for studying semiotic resources such as language. 10.

(20) and image. He emphasized that images and words could be examined with the help of the three-layer semiotic metafunctions. Because communication in social settings is inherently multimodal, it is necessary to understand how modalities work separately and conjointly (Unsworth, 2001). The following section presents the core concept of multimodality proposed by Kress (2000).. Kress’ Multimodality Theory Multimodality involves the connection of more than one mode of semiotic resources to make meanings (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2001; New London Group, 1996). Kress’s (2000) research delineated the concept of multimodality and pointed out that words and images have different modal affordances. Kress (2000) suggested that meanings were made through the use of different modes and that communication between people could be optimized only when various semiotic resources such as words and images were used concurrently to achieve meanings. Since the affordance of words is different from that of images, written language is not the sole carrier of meanings in communication (Bezemer & Kress, 2016). Images have their share of affordance of making meanings (Kress, 2000). Some researchers (Ajayi, 2009; Cappello & Walker, 2016; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996) suggested that language users gained more insights and elicited meanings from multimodal texts such as photographs, visual images, graphic and multimedia layout because learners first opted for visual images and then the written words second.. Modal Affordance Modal affordance in multimodality theories refers to the potential and constraints with which people could use to express meanings (Bezemer & Kress, 2016). Modal affordance can be seen as the extent to which meanings can be expressed or. 11.

(21) represented through a particular mode. For instance, Kress (2000) found that when the participants, a group of 13-year-old science learners, were asked to report what they learned in class through written language or drawing, the participants narrated the content of the lesson by integrating words and drawing to represent what they had learned. It was discovered that words written by the participants could not be understood easily unless words were interpreted with the help of accompanying images (Kress, 2000). It was then noticed that words and images served as different modes to carry meanings with their particular affordances. Written texts could be enhanced through visual elements while visual support complemented its share of multimodal affordance to complete meanings. Text and image work in tandem to realize meanings (Royce, 2007). Similarly, Jewitt (2008) indicated that language alone is not the carrier of all meanings. All modes (sound, gesture, movement, language) are partial in meaning contribution because each mode offers its share of affordance to the whole meaning. This view echoed Kress’s (2000) research. Jewitt (2008) explicated that different modal affordances composed meanings in their own ways. Images are non-sequential and spatial whereas spoken and written words are governed by time sequences or the logic of time. Image is “governed by the logic of space” (Jewitt, 2008, p.247). Image can be examined from any aspect of it and the orders of aspects to interpret image vary, depending on the viewers. The image represents a referent, a physically observable object or event, a conceptual relationship of phenomena, one’s experiences and so on. Given the fact that both words and images have their discrete modal affordances, they contribute to the representation of meanings and communication in their distinct ways (Jewitt, 2008). The visual and verbal make up each other’s experiential meanings (Royce, 2002).. 12.

(22) Contributions of Incorporating Multimodal Learning Materials into Language Learning A burgeoning body of multimodal research has investigated the integration of multimodal resources such as language and image to EFL learning. Given the everchanging learning resources and contexts, words are not the only effective access to meanings. Language users need to elicit meanings through multimodal texts such as the Internet, visual images, graphic and multimedia layouts (Gee, 2003; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996). Reading a multimodal text is an activity that requires the interplay of the three layers of meanings to interpret the semiotic complementarity of the verbal and the visual. Learners may draw meanings from different modes in the learning materials. For instance, in multimodal texts, a picture is often regarded as “worth a thousand words” (Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003, p.761) because the external visual element such as illustrations and picture books concisely make readers understand the wordy contents (Hibbing& Rankin-Erickson, 2003). A great number of studies have emphasized the importance of multimodality in language learning (Guichon & McLornan, 2008; Kress, 2000; Liu & Qu, 2014; Royce, 2002). Words can evoke images whereas images have referential connections to verbal system (Paivio, 2014). Both modalities help readers to retrieve information and strengthen cognitive power. For example, it was found in Hibbing and RankinErickson’s (2003) research that struggling language learners preferred visual-oriented learning support to enhance comprehensions. Some studies (Bezemer & Kress, 2016; Kost, 1999; Kramsch & Andersen, 1999; Levie & Lentz, 1982; Royce, 2002) focus on the cognitive enhancement that multimodal texts bring about to develop understanding. For example, multimodal texts were found to activate and supplement prior knowledge, help organize reading inputs and enhance reading or listening comprehension. Other researchers (Chen,. 13.

(23) 2010; Choi & Yi, 2015) appealed to the affective engagements brought by multimodal language learning. The following sections are studies organized based on the two equally important attributes of language learning: comprehensibility and enjoyment. From cognitive perspectives, adopting a multimodal approach to language learning helps to enhance comprehension (Royce, 2002). Functioning as an overview of the bi-modal texts, visual representations of concepts or events are of great significance in promoting instant and overall understandings (Levie & Lentz, 1982). Images also work as background knowledge activators that serve to help readers confirm hypotheses they form when they encounter new vocabulary (Al Seghayer, 2001). Meaningful visual resources expedite learning and assist learners to recognize and recall vocabulary effectively (Jones, 2004; Yoshii, 2006). Images can also be employed to elicit outputs such as the picture descriptions in speaking or writing tasks (Royce, 2002). On the other hand, textual features also have affordance to express and realize meanings. Words can be presented with the aid of “visual prominence such as in the use of a bold font, or by CAPITALIZING” (Bezemer & Kress, 2016, p. 17). In addition, textual features enable readers to distinguish the general from the particular in language through “the configuration of image and writing” (Jewitt, 2005, p.317). Images and visual representations evoke background knowledge as memory pegs (Gambrell & Jawitz, 1993). Similar findings have been revealed in the study conducted by Carpenter and Olsen (2012). Carpenter and Olsen (2012) found that participants learned new vocabularies in a foreign language better when pictures of corresponding words were provided instead of direct translations of the words. Liu & Qu (2014) examined the textual and visual relations in two versions of textbooks. In the lesson regarding the speech addressed by Bill Gates, a photo of the speaker was helpful for readers to identify the first person pronoun in the paragraphs. Other corresponding pictures also guided readers to associate the verbal narration with the. 14.

(24) events or activities the speaker referred to. These results are in line with previous studies that images directly and effectively represented the ideational semiotic meaning of vocabulary (Royce, 2007). Another example of multiple modes cognitively empowering EFL learners could be seen in the experiment conducted by Guichon and McLornan (2008). Four groups of participants were exposed to different combinations of modalities: audio alone, video with audio, video with audio and L2 subtitles and video with audio and L1 subtitles. Compared to other three counterparts, the participants who listened to the podcast in single mode produced the least semantic unit in their written records whereas the participants who received modes of audio, video and subtitles in either L2 or their L1 produced observably higher percentage of written semantic units in their recorded summaries. The experiment proved that by utilizing different modes in language teaching and learning, meanings or communication could be achieved more effectively. Moreover, Shalmani and Sabet (2010) compared the effect of textual annotations, visual annotations and the combination of textual and visual annotations. They found that compared to other groups with single modal annotations, the visualtextual annotation group performed better in reading tasks. Their finding revealed that the students could decode the meanings of texts more easily because of the bimodal annotations. Such finding is consistent with Paivio and Desrochers’ (1981) dual coding theory. Liu (2004) has similar findings that comic strips assisted the less proficient learners to comprehend difficult texts, compared to the time when the less proficient learners read difficult texts without comic strips. Mayer and Sims (1994) also found that pictures could greatly promote reading for the visual-spatial learners. Rowe, Silverman and Mullan (2013) also found that the integration of pictures and words helped the low-proficiency learners focus on the texts by providing specific. 15.

(25) mental structures for them to understand the spatial relations and to represent the texts. Furthermore, Ajayi (2012) found that the instructors used pictures to contextualize reading but the instructors did not initiate explicit discussions to interpret bimodal texts in a critical way. He suggested that the instructors could guide students to engage in reading bimodal texts and to connect meanings projected by visual and textual modes with leaners’ life experiences in order to consolidate learning outcomes. Similarly, Kost, Foss and Lenzini (1999) compared text comprehensions of single textual or pictorial mode and of a combination of pictorial and verbal modes. It was revealed that participants achieved better and retainable comprehension when more than one mode was employed. What the participants learned could be retained longer and could be recalled more effectively. Kramsch and Andersen (1999) also found that learners deciphered and decoded the extremely “rich semiotic text” (Kramsch & Andersen, 1999, p. 38) to attain a better understanding of the cultural contexts presented in the multimedia learning materials. The result showed that language did not carry all the meanings and images could realize meanings beyond words. It was clear that the learners attained better cultural understanding when they were exposed to multimodal texts. In addition, Connors (2013) maintained that proficient EFL learners wove multimodal resources to reconcile meanings when reading graphic novels. It was found that visual mode did not make the readers passive in reading graphic novels. Instead, the readers needed to go back and forth between visual and linguistic modes to negotiate meanings and gain full understandings of the multimodal texts. Though Mayer and Sims (1994) found that the use of both visual and textual resources worked differently for students with various abilities, Mayer and Sims (1994) argued that the students with better spatial ability were able to allocate more cognitive resources to make meanings from visual. 16.

(26) and textual connections than the low spatial ability students. From an affective perspective, multimodal pedagogy helped to motivate students, especially those reluctant or struggling learners to read. Multimodal teaching enables both cognitive and affective engagement and helps to enhance language learners’ sense of achievement and self-esteem (Choi & Yi, 2015). Pictures may play a significant motivational role in facilitating foreign language vocabulary learning better than word to word translations. Chen (2010) found that the integration of multimodality in language learning empowered EFL learners to engage in learning and express their views. The participants were allowed to express feelings and perspectives based on the given visual cues. The participants were more motivated to express themselves in multimodal learning environment. They were allowed to show themselves in diverse forms of performance, poetry, visual arts and so on. The modally diverse ways of expressions helped to lower learners’ anxiety and enhance learning motivation. Visual elements may provide another path for various EFL learning possibilities (Ajayi, 2009; Kress, 2005; Royce, 2002).. Limitations and Constraints of Incorporating Multimodal Learning Materials into Language Learning As much as multimodal resources can benefit ESL learners, not all EFL students benefit from multimodal resources in texts. When multimodal resources were not delivered properly, multimodal resources might have conflicts with learners’ existing knowledge (Ajayi, 2012). Some researchers (Ajayi, 2012; Bezemer & Jewitt, 2010; Guichon & McLornan, 2008) argued that multimodal learning material may not facilitate comprehension. One of the possible drawbacks of multimodal learning could be seen in Bezemer and Jewitt’s (2010) research. Bezemer and Jewitt (2010) claimed selective focus on one single mode might not be enough to gain full understandings of. 17.

(27) texts. Moreover, multiple modes might divide EFL learners’ attention from the general understanding of the text when receiving information. Guichon and McLornan (2008) suggested that images distract students’ attention from the target language. They found that the images and texts did not match in meanings in the authentic language learning materials chosen in their experiment. Visual and verbal modes do not have the same affordances of meanings and they are not the alternative to each other. For example, in Guichon and McLornan’s (2008) study of potentials of diverse modes in language learning, it was revealed that when different modes of information had to be processed simultaneously, there might be a cognitive overload impeding comprehension. When images shown on the screen were not directly linked to the target information reported in the target language, participants’ attention would be divided and multiple modes may cause distraction. Similarly, Mayer and Moreno’s (2003) cognitive theory also pointed out when multiple modes co-occurred in the learning environment, split-attention effect was likely to occur. For example, Mayer and Moreno (2003) found that when the students were exposed to textual annotations and animations in multimodal learning environments, the students might have exceeding cognitive load from different modes and thus failed to fully comprehend the lessons. Also, learners might ascribe their irrelevant prior experiences to the visual images, which might lead to misunderstandings (Watkins, Miller & Brubaker, 2004). In addition, not all the modes in the learning materials complement each other in a comprehensible way. While some researchers embraced a multimodal perspective and proposed that the design of images and words contributed to the meaning of a text in different ways, other researchers (Bezemer & Jewitt, 2010; Guichon & McLornan, 2008; Jewitt, 2008) noted that verbal information which was incompatible with visual elements might cause divided attention and obstruction of comprehension. In addition,. 18.

(28) how multimodal design in texts was presented by instructors might also affect whether ESL learners make use of the multimodal features to construct knowledge. Ajayi (2012) indicated that because teachers had more verbal analysis expertise, they paid less attention to multimodal features in their teaching practices. Consequently, the students were less engaged in class because they lacked multimodal support to clarify, negotiate and interact with meanings in texts. As discussed above, given the fact that not all words and images in multimodal texts complement each other to help readers achieve optimal reading comprehension, there has been a need to examine how people interpret the interplay of different modes and how verbal and visual affordances contribute and co-articulate their share of meanings (Kress, 2005; Unsworth, 2006).. Conceptions of Learning Against the backdrop of the prominent learner-centered teaching approach, an important branch of EFL research has placed focus on what learners know about language learning and how learners conceive language learning (Kramsch & Anderson, 1999). It is significantly important to understand learners’ conceptions of a given matter on the ground that the conceptual beliefs learners hold may influence perceptions and learning strategies. Some researchers (Saljo, 1979; Schommer, 1990; Tsai, 2009) investigated learners’ conceptions of learning because they aimed to find out why some learners performed better. At its core, conceptions are a cognitive structure that is actively built as a framework to guide one to process learning (Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005). Conceptions of language learning are what learners think the learning processes are (Benson & Lor, 1999). Conceptualizations of learning can influence teaching and learning in classroom contexts (Hofer, 2001). Conceptions of learning characterize. 19.

(29) learners’ thinking at a higher level of abstraction than beliefs. Whereas beliefs can be inferred more or less directly from data, conceptions of learning call for a further level of analysis (Benson & Lor, 1999). According to Yang and Tsai (2010), assessing learners’ conceptions brought several valuable insights to instructors. Conceptions learners hold are qualitatively different data that may assist learning development as well as provide learners with much-needed learning approaches to enhance their academic performances (Marshall, Summer & Woolnough, 1999; Tsai, 2004, 2009; Yang & Tsai, 2010). Therefore, understanding learners’ prior knowledge or conceptions on a certain matter has great educational value for instructors to address learners’ underlying beliefs or help learners construct new knowledge (Benson & Lor, 1999; Tsai, 2004, 2009). Conceptions of learning have been widely investigated because they have potential influence and because they are an important contributory factor on language learning processes and outcomes (Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005; Hofer & Pintrich, 2004; Saljo, 1979; Schommer, 1990).. Definitions of Conceptions Researchers proposed their definitions of conceptions differently: (a) conceptions as a higher level mechanism than beliefs and thus preconditioning beliefs that one holds (Benson & Lor, 1999); (b) conceptions as a philosophy or epistemological belief concerning the nature and justification of knowledge (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997; Schoomer, 1994b); (c) conceptions as a part of underlying metacognitive awareness (Hofer, 2004); (d) conceptions as developmental progression that reflecting an individual’s ability to regulate their learning (Baxter Magolda, 2004; Kuhn, Cheney & Weinstock 2000); (e) conceptions as preexisting knowledge and a structure that predisposes learners’ thinking (Torff & Sternberg, 2001); (f) conceptions as a coherent. 20.

(30) knowledge system of learning-related phenomena (Vermunt & Vermetten, 2004) ; (g) conceptions as an advanced form of meta-knowing that are located within the model of metacognition (Hofer, 2001) ; (h) conceptions as what people know about knowledge and how people know or beliefs of knowing (Kuhn, 2001). While conceptions were operationalized differently, researchers mostly agreed that conceptions are a set of intuitive beliefs that are constructed based on prior experiences and influence learners in a variety of ways. A number of studies (Benson & Lor, 1999; Cheng & Tsai, 2012; Saljo, 1979) have investigated students’ conceptions of learning. Some place more emphasis on the categorizations of conceptions. In the study of Marton and Salijo (1976), they investigated how participants learned and how they approached the learning tasks. Four categories of responses are coded based on the nature of contents and the depth of processing (surface-level and deep-level). Other research on L2 learners’ conceptions has revealed how learners’ conceptions were reconstructed as they adapted to new learning contexts. In Benson and Lor’s (1999) study of learners’ conceptions of language learning, Benson and Lor (1999) clarified the definitions of conception and belief to better understand how EFL learners conceptualized language learning. College students’ conceptions of L2 reading evolved as they were trained to interpret academic readings (Ohata & Fukao, 2014). The following sections list a few key models of conceptions to illustrate how learners conceive learning.. Hierarchical Categories of Conceptions of Learning In the research of conceptions, it could be observed that conceptions of learning were represented in a hierarchical manner (Richardson, 1999; Saljo, 1979). Saljo (1979) initiated the examinations of conceptions of learning on participants with wide age variety and educational levels. Saljo (1997) proposed that people approached to. 21.

(31) learning differently because each had their own distinct conceptions of learning. The study prototyped five qualitatively different types of conceptions of learning based on the approaches to learning including “increase of knowledge”, “memorizing”, “acquisition of facts”, “abstraction of meaning”, “an interpretative process aiming at the understanding of reality” (Saljo, 1979, p. 19). In a sense, the categories were identified and ordered hierarchically in relation to level of learning complexity. For example, Saljo (1979) maintained that “memorizing” is higher than “the increase of knowledge”. In “the increase of knowledge”, learning is regarded as acquiring information or knowing a lot while in “memorizing,” learning is seen as storing information that can be reproduced. Marton (1986) proposed that the hierarchy of conceptions could form an “outcome space”, a concise chart demonstrating the hierarchical relations among categories. In Tsai and Tsai’s (2013) study that adopted a phenomonographic method, the categories were discovered to have hierarchically different relations. This study is different from the previous two, for it has predetermined research design. The participants were divided into the control group and the experimental group to experience proposing argumentation in an online environment. The conceptions were also identified in a different way. The most frequently appearing conceptions were considered the “main level” conceptions whereas the conceptions that ranked the highest within one participant were “achieved level” conceptions. Despite the two different research designs, this paper is in line with the previous two studies because the identified categories represent qualitatively different and hierarchically related conceptions. In these studies, the logic behind the arrangement of categories makes sense. First, these studies identify qualitative different conceptions that can be arranged in hierarchical manner (Marton, 1986). A hierarchy of conceptions can also be found in “Students’ Conceptions of. 22.

(32) Statistics” by Reid and Petocz (2002). They ranked the students’ responses as (1) an individual numerical activities (limited and fragmented), (2) an individual statistical techniques (fragmented but with a focus of a single use of statistical term), (3) a collection of statistical techniques (more uses of terms regarding statistics, more cumulative), (4) the analysis and interpretation of data (combining the characteristics of conception 1 to 3 but see them as part of a whole interpretive process), (5) a way of understanding real-life using different statistical models (meaningful relations among data) and (6) an inclusive tool to understand the world and develop personal meanings (creative, developmental, personal, and critical). The research concluded that conceptions 1 to 3 adopt gathering approach. Conceptions 4 and 5 use applying approach and conception 6 adopt creating approach. Previous studies (Marton, 1986; Reid & Petocz, 2002; Saljo, 1979; Tsai & Tsai, 2013) reveal a set of hierarchically ordered conceptions. It can be inferred that the categories of conceptions are hierarchically related. The lowest category can be viewed as a limited and fragmented and with less complexity. On the contrary, the highest category exhibits higher complexity. Furthermore, the conception research features an outcome space, a concise chart demonstrating the relations among categories and summarizing the characteristics of each category (Marton, 1986).. Surface and Deep Conceptions The hierarchical different categories of conceptions can be divided into two major divisions: surface processing and deep processing (Marton & Saljo, 1976). The surface-level processing emphasizes learning what the text is about whereas the deeplevel processing focuses on the meaning of contents or the signified. The former requires lower cognitive processing while the latter demands higher cognitive processing to interpret meanings from the content. Similar categorization can be. 23.

(33) found in Biggs’ (1987) research. Biggs (1987) described that learning approaches could be classified into two major divisions: surface approach and deep approach. The former focuses on extrinsic motivation while the latter on intrinsic motivation. In Zhao’s (2015) study, the participants with lower conceptions held rather fragmented and unrelated views of the topic. In contrast, the participants with advanced conceptions were more involved in assigning meanings to and had higher awareness of the subject in question. The participants with advanced conceptions tried to explore the underlying logic of the topic and played an active role in their learning. The participants with advanced conceptions were more critical and independent in a sense that they described the phenomenon beyond the study situation (reality-oriented rather than subject-matter-oriented). Similarly, Yang and Tsai (2010) investigated students’ conceptions of online peer assessment and found that two major divisions were identified: surface approaches and deep approaches. The former is associated with external motivations (e.g. memorizing knowledge or receiving information) while the latter is related to internal motivations (e.g. understanding knowledge, reflecting on the meaning of the content). To sum up, the previous research suggests that research on conceptions includes a clear outcome space displaying a hierarchy of qualitatively different conceptions and that the categories might fall into one of the two distinctive divisions.. Factors Influencing Conceptions Research on conceptions of learning has gained much attention in the past decades and there has been a growing research focus on various domain-specific areas such as science, mathematics, nursing, environment and language learning (Benson & Lor, 1999; Lin, Tsai, & Liang, 2012; Ohata & Fukao, 2014; Wenden, 2001; Zheng, Liang, Yang and Tsai, 2016). Benson and Lor (1999) noted that conceptions of. 24.

(34) language learning were higher level of thinking structures that called for more detailed analysis. Because learners’ conceptions of learning are linked to learning approaches and performances (Schommer, 1990), it is noteworthy to know the variables that may affect the shaping of one’s conceptions. Possible variables includes prior knowledge, educational background, disciplinary differences and gender, previous successful or struggling learning experiences and readiness for second language learning. These variables are important in EFL instructions because they are closely associated with conceptual cognitive processes (Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005). Several studies have shown that beliefs are highly related to educational backgrounds (Hofer, 2001; Schommer, 1990). Instructors may also play a part in affecting learners’ conceptions of learning. Hofer (2001) suggested that teachers’ beliefs could lead to students’ beliefs of knowledge and consequently affect students’ learning motivation, coping strategies and final acquisition. Hofer’s (2001) research shows how the students’ conceptions affected classroom practices. The study specifically indicated beliefs that learners held may be a predictor of learning motivation and learning strategies selection later. Learners’ conceptions of knowledge and knowing would in turn determine knowledge acquisitions. Educational environment variables could be identified in Saljo’s (1979) study. A striking change occurred in a person’s idea of learning in secondary school stage and post-secondary stage because of external factors such as reading amount as well as internal factors, including the activated ability of questioning the nature of the learned content. Benson and Lor (1999) also found that there was a rooted contextual influence as well as a distinctive two-dimension categories in the phenomenographical accounts provided by the Hong Kong-based, college freshmen participants: quantitative and qualitative. There appeared to be a sharp contrast when quantitative and qualitative. 25.

(35) conceptions provided by the participants were extracted and analyzed. Some conceptions of language learning were mechanical, accumulative and drill-like whereas others were more communicative and functional. The participants oriented themselves in the shared educational experiences featuring foreign language learning skills and good share of study time in the target language. In contrast, one’s conceptions may result from implicit learning from one’s learning environment (Torff & Sternberg, 2001). An example of qualitative conceptions could be seen when participants categorized motivational factor as one of the important part of language learning. For example, when participants referred to movie watching as one of the relaxing and entertaining ways to learn a foreign language, they tended to adopt a qualitative approach to conceptualize language learning. While some learners conceptualized that language learning required efforts, time, and persistent practice, they tended to employ a more quantitative approach to language learning. Previous research failed to assess learners’ conceptions of multimodal resources in EFL contexts. It is important to understand multimodal educational practices from learners’ viewpoints because these practices are significant part of one’s conceptual development of education. A great number of studies (Ellis, Steed & Applebee, 2006; Makoe, Richardson & Price 2008; Tsai 2004) have emphasized one’s conception developments are tied to where the learning occurred and that learning is, thus, contextually dependent Multimodal learning provides a platform of textual and contextual, visual and audio interaction and interpretation to learners. Thus, there has been a dire need to understand cognitive, social and emotional aspects in the multimodal communication era where EFL learners are demanded to reconfigure their concepts of communication (Jewitt, 2008). Learners’ conceptions of language learning vary, depending on contexts, and are thus contextual. As to disciplinary differences, Schommer (1990) detected moderate similarity of. 26.

(36) conceptions in social science and mathematics. Schommer (1990) found that gifted students, females, and those who have more exposure to education are less likely to subscribe to fixed knowledge and quick learning beliefs, compared to their male counterparts. Some studies (Griffiths, 2007; Hawkey, 2006; Jarvis & Szymczyk, 2010) investigated learners’ affective responses toward certain activities and strategies to acquire the target language. Though the research provided pedagogical implications and potential solutions for instructors, they paid little attention to the reasons why learners perceive things in certain ways. Certain perceptions of the prominence of learning activities are detrimental to learning outcomes. For example, Peacock (1998) found those learners who believed that language learning was a summary of rules memorizing were more likely to be less proficient. Additionally, learners’ affective variables should also be taken into account when it comes to learners’ beliefs and attitudes, Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) emphasized the role of motivation, anxiety and attitude in language learning, indicating that students’ views of language learning were strongly connected to their affective variables.. Conceptions and Academic Performance One line of the research on learners’ conceptions emphasizes the connection between conceptions and learning outcomes as well as the contributory impact that conceptions of learning have on academic performance (Cheng & Tsai, 2012; Ohata & Fukao, 2014; Wenden, 2001; Zimmerman & Martiner-Rings, 1988). Wenden (2001) pointed out that students’ conceptions of learning are the key factor that guides or inhibits the process of language learning. In addition, Zimmerman and MartinerRings (1988) found that successful learners tended to develop sophisticated learning insights into language learning process. Thus, well-developed and comprehensive. 27.

(37) conceptions distinguished the successful learners from the struggling learners. Schommer (1990) indicated that the four distinctive factors (fixed ability, quick learning, simple knowledge and certain knowledge) are predictors of college students’ academic performances. For example, she found that gifted students, females, and those who have more exposure to education are less likely to subscribe to fixed knowledge and quick learning beliefs. The significant role of learner conceptions also manifested in the research conducted by Schommer (1999). It was found that when language learners held positive beliefs to grammar, they would adopt a range of strategies to enhance their linguistic accuracy. Likewise, learners who valued communication abilities tended to embrace communicative approach to language learning (Schommer, 1999). Similarly, one’s conceptions are highly associated with their language competence and performance (Schommer, 1990; Tsai, 2009). Different learning approaches are the reflections of a variety of beliefs learners hold about learning (Saljo, 1979). Specifically, Tsai (2009) pointed out that the more sophisticated the students’ conceptions of learning and web-based learning were, the better quality of learning they might achieve. Higher-order conceptions of learning and web-learning also correlated with better strategies use and self-efficacy. Cheng and Tsai (2012) also identified the tie between learning conceptions and their approaches to learning. The more sophisticated the students’ conceptions of learning and web-based learning are, the better quality of learning they may attain. Higher-order conceptions of learning and web-learning also correlated better use of strategies and self-efficacy. Examining the tie between conceptions of learning and learning outcome, Cheng and Tsai (2016) investigated parents’ conceptions of shared readings. They found that the group with a parent as dominator and with less communicative approach exhibited less interactive actions in augmented storybook reading activity. They did not deal. 28.

(38) with children distraction and such disregarding of children attention led to less cognitive attainment. If the participants conceptualized that augmented storybook reading to their children was beneficial, they were more motivated and more engaged to read storybooks aloud. Previous studies strengthen the need to probing different views held by learners. Understanding learners’ conceptions may be helpful to enhance EFL learning. Since EFL students’ conceptions of how they learn in EFL contexts may affect their learning outcomes (Hofer, 2001; Marton & Salijo, 1976; Ohata & Fukao, 2014; Schommer, 1999), it is necessary to call for EFL learners’ attention to their own language learning as well as to assess EFL learners’ conceptions. Yet, little attention has been paid to how such conceptions are constructed and developed. More emphasis should be put on EFL learners’ conceptions of language learning in terms of the textual and visual connections in bimodal texts. There has been a dire need to explore how EFL learners conceptualize bimodal connection in English textbooks. Moreover, how learners conceptualize learning is highly associated with their learning strategies and academic performances as well. Thus, this present investigation aims to assess and understand how learners conceptualize the role the textual and the visual elements play in the printed texts and what the process of reading multimodal texts consists of.. 29.

(39) CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY The major goal of this present study is to investigate how Taiwanese high school students conceptualize textual and visual connection in English learning texts. This chapter details the overall research design, including the participants, theoretical frameworks, instruments for assessing conceptions, and procedures.. Participants Since it was hypothesized that the variations of conceptions mirrored EFL learners’ performance and competence, the participants were chosen from a language gifted (LG) class and a regular social science (RSS) class on voluntary basis to represent English proficiency differences. The participants from LG class had higher aptitude for language, and had higher language proficiency than those from any other class in the same grade. The major focus of the English class in this school was on developing reading abilities and expanding their English vocabulary. They had five periods of English classes in which they received intensive reading and writing training each week. They are also encouraged to express themselves in various ways such as oral presentations, Power Point Presentations, and dramas. The LG class had more opportunities for oral presentation in class and was given one more English class for training oral expressions. A total of sixteen EFL eleventh graders at a senior high school in central Taiwan were recruited to participate in the present study. Half of the participants were recruited from LG class while the other half of the participants were from RSS class. The students in the LG class had an average of 65 in their monthly exams, which is considerably higher than those of the RSS class (with an average of 50). The scores of every monthly test of every participant were shown in Table 1. While the average years of English learning in RSS group was less. 30.

(40) than 9 years, those of the LG group was 10.5 years. On average, all of the participants in the study had about ten years of English learning experience. They were informed of the research contexts where they needed to present their English reading habits and their views of reading in English textbooks in general during the semi-structured interviews. All of the participants were assigned a number for identification purposes. Table 1 shows the academic backgrounds and the grouping of the participants.. Table 1. The Academic Backgrounds of the Participants Midterm. Midterm. (October, 2016). Final. Midterm. Midterm. (November (January,. (March,. (May,. ,. 2017). 2017). 2017). Years of Group. Name. EFL. Gender. learning 2016) 1*. RSS. Fei. 8. Female. 52. 43. 46. 32. 35. 2. RSS. Yi. 8. Female. 70. 38. 51. 36. 55. 3. RSS. Ying. 9. Female. 55. 40. 47. 45. 45. 4. RSS. Wan. 9. Female. 48. 40. 36. 37. 27. 5. RSS. Rita. 9. Female. 66. 59. 64. 56. 78. 6. RSS. Xun. 9. Male. 58. 36. 31. 27. 31. 7. LG. Yan. 8. Female. 65. 43. 48. 56. 44. 8. LG. Pei. 8. Female. 80. 63. 51. 51. 44. 9. RSS. Hannah. 8. Female. 73. 45. 38. 34. 78. 10. LG. Fu. 10. Male. 67. 52. 62. 58. 51. 11. LG. Xuan. 11. Female. 89. 67. 80. 68. 90. 12. RSS. Zhu. 9. Female. 65. 38. 40. 34. 30. 13. LG. Shan. 11. Female. 84. 73. 72. 72. 81. 14. LG. Krystal. 13. Female. 93. 85. 82. 72. 88. 15. LG. Kana. 12. Female. 75. 53. 65. 70. 78. 16. LG. Jean. 13. Female. 70. 57. 45. 45. 46. * A sequential identifying number for each student Note. RSS=the regular social science group; LG= the language gifted group. The present study involved two parts (see Appendix A):. 31.

(41) PartⅠ: General questions regarding the participants’ English learning experiences and background PartⅡ: The main part of the analysis. The participants in the study were asked to describe their English reading habits and experiences. The guiding interview questions for assessing conceptions of textual and visual connection in English textbooks were modified from Tsai (2004, 2009) and Yang and Tsai (2010), presented in Appendix 1. Prior to the interviews of the research being conducted, many potential interview questions were examined, discussed with a professor, who has conducted research on conceptions, and tried out with five high school students in the pilot. To probe learners’ conceptions of textual and visual relations in English textbooks, the interview started with questions about the participants’ academic backgrounds and EFL learning experiences in general. Then, the participants were asked to describe more specifically about their reading focus in a lesson of an English textbook, the reading approach they adopted to interpret multimodal texts in a lesson, and how they utilized textual and visual relations to achieve EFL reading comprehension. They needed to answer questions related to the features they noticed or were attracted to in the English textbook. They were asked to describe how those features in a lesson in English textbooks influenced their reading comprehension. On average, all the interviews lasted for thirty to forty minutes. In the pilot study, some of the students were inarticulate in their responses to the interview questions. After the pilot study, some of the interviewed questions were revised to cover all relevant aspects and gain better understandings of the participants’ conceptions. For example, “What do you think about the lessons in the textbooks?” was revised into “How do you describe the lessons that impress you most in English textbooks?” The revised questions were designed to encourage the participants to be engaged in thinking in order to answer the target questions clearly. All the interviews. 32.

(42) were audio-recorded and conducted in Mandarin. The recorded contents were transcribed for further analysis.. Phenomenographic Method Phenomenographic method was employed in the present study for three reasons. First, the method maps the qualitatively different ways of understanding. It explores various aspects of what people experience and how people conceptualize things. Second, since categories in hierarchical order often emerge, this method provides a chance to differentiated learners’ views and consequently to refine and change learners’ existing views on things. Third, the approach was used to distinguish differences in people’s experiences of a phenomenon or the ways people understand the world around them (Marton, 1986).. Data Analysis The interviews were audio-recorded and analyzed through phenomenographic approach (Marton, 1986; Richardson, 1999). The approach is iterative in nature and can be used to describe the phenomenon involving a small sample of subjects (Richardson, 1999). In phenomenography analysis, researchers observe the most distinctive patterns found in data that distinguish conceptions qualitatively (Benson & Lor, 1999). Patterns that strike structurally significant differences are useful to understand how people define and construct a certain part of the world (Benson & Lor, 1999; Marton, 1986). Phenomenographic analysis focuses on how a subject matter appears to people and involves sorting and categorization of similar ideas into hierarchically ordered categories of conceptions and reflects qualitatively different ways of understanding a phenomenon (Brew, 2001; Richardson, 1999). Because the intention of phenomenography is to describe different ways a phenomenon is viewed,. 33.