台灣學生決策於留學美國或澳洲之因素比較 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際經營與貿易學系研究所 National Chengchi University College of Commerce Department of International Business. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. ‧ 國. 學. 政治大立台灣學生決策於留學美國或澳洲之因素比較 ‧. A Comparison of the Decision-Making Factors for Taiwanese. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Students Intending to Study in America and Australia Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Student: Alexander Matos 馬布思 Advisor: Professor Jyh-Shen Chiou 邱志聖. 中華民國 107 年 8 月 August 2018. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(2) Abstract Over the past 40 years the international education industry has seen rapid growth and English-speaking countries such as America and Australia, where the bulk of international students go, have been reaping the benefits. However, recently it has become evident that these countries have a growing reliance on China and India for students, which make up nearly half of their international students. This is concerning education institutions across the world, who are now looking at how to increase the diversity of their international students. Taiwan is a traditionally high exporter of international students, and is one of the many markets that can be further developed. The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the important factors for Taiwanese in selecting a country to study. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA; Fishbein &. 治. 政for this study大with antecedent variables being Ajzen, 2010) was used as the theoretical base. 立 2014). The research examined the Attitudes, Subjective derived from the 4C Framework (Chiou, ‧ 國. 學. Norms, and Intentions to study in Australia and America through a questionnaire. The antecedent. ‧. variables for the Attitude construct were derived from the 4C Framework. Survey participants were found using a snowball method via both online and offline channels and a total of 336. y. Nat. io. sit. complete surveys were collected. The results found that similar factors are important for. er. Taiwanese intending to study in Australia and America: Education Quality, Understanding,. n. a. iv. l C it was found nthat those intending to study in Career Prospects and Social Norms. However, U. hengchi. Australia are more susceptible to social influencers compared to those who intend to study in America. The findings from this study are relevant to stakeholders in the Australian and American education industry, and can be used in marketing to target Taiwanese international students.. Keywords: Education, International Education, Student Mobility, Australia, Taiwan, America. 1. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(3) Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1 .............................................................................................................................. 5 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 5 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................................ 6 International mobilisation of Taiwanese students .......................................................................... 8 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 10. Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................. 11 Theory of Reasoned Action ........................................................................................................... 11 4C Framework .............................................................................................................................. 12 Conceptual Model and Hypothesis ............................................................................................... 19. 政治大 Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................. 23 立 ‧ 國. 學. Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 23 Reliability & Validity Analysis ..................................................................................................... 26. ‧. Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................. 27. Nat. io. sit. y. Results ........................................................................................................................................... 27. l. er. n. Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................................. 34 a. iv. Ch Discussion and Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 34 Un. engchi. Australia ........................................................................................................................................... 34 America ............................................................................................................................................ 36 Recommendations for America and Australia .............................................................................. 37 Limitations and Further Research ................................................................................................ 38. Reference ............................................................................................................................. 40 Appendix A – English Survey .............................................................................................. 42. 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(4) Table of Tables Table 1 Methods to reduce consumers (C1) ................................................................................. 14 Table 2 Methods to reduce (C2) ................................................................................................... 15 Table 3 Methods to reduce Risk Costs (C3) ................................................................................. 17 Table 4 Methods to increase Specific Asset Investment Costs (C4) ............................................ 18 Table 5 Descriptive statistics for survey respondents ................................................................... 24 Table 6 Constructs Descriptive Statistics ..................................................................................... 25 Table 7 Variables Reliability Analysis ......................................................................................... 26 Table 8 Antecedent Variables and Overall Attitude Correlation Analysis ................................... 27 Table 9 Variables and Overall Attitude Regression Analysis ...................................................... 28 Table 10 Overall Attitude and Intention Regression治 Analysis ..................................................... 29. 政. 大 Analysis .............................. 30 Table 11 Variables and Overall Attitude and Intention Regression 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(5) Table of Figures Figure 1 Top study destinations for international students by student enrolments in 2017 ........... 5 Figure 2 America and Australia’s top source countries of international students by student visas granted in 2016 ....................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 3 Top five study destinations for Taiwanese by student visas 1998-2016 .......................... 9 Figure 4 Total number of Taiwanese students (including those not on a student visa) in top five study destinations by country 2012-17 ................................................................................. 10 Figure 5 Theory of Reasoned Action framework ......................................................................... 12 Figure 6 4C Framework ................................................................................................................ 13 Figure 7 Explicit Unit Benefit Cost (C1) ...................................................................................... 14 Figure 8 Conceptual framework of the study ............................................................................... 20 治. 政. 大 Figure 9 Australian Results........................................................................................................... 32 立. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 10 American Results.......................................................................................................... 33 Figure 11 Australian and American Results Comparison Table .................................................. 34. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(6) Chapter 1 Introduction The international educational industry has seen substantial growth over the past 40 years. In 2015 there was over 5 million students studying abroad more than double that of 2000, and triple that of 1990 (ICEF Monitor, 2015). This is forecasted to continue to grow reaching numbers upwards of 7.2 million by the year 2025 (Bohm et al., 2002). The most popular destinations for international students continue to be English speaking countries, with the bulk of students going to America, United Kingdom and Australia (Figure 1). That being said there is increasing competition from other countries who offer courses in English and whose languages are of regional importance such as France, Germany, Russia and China.. ‧ 國. China 3%. Canada 3%. 2. United Kingdom. 431,000. Australia. 294,000. 4. France. 239,000. 5. Germany. 229,000. 6. Russia. 226,000. 7. Canada. 172,000. 8. China. 137,527. 9. Japan. 131,000. 10. Malaysia. 124,000. sit. n. Ch. United Kingdom. e n g9%c h i U. France 5%. Japan 3%. 907,000. er. io. al. Australia 6%. Malaysia 2%. America. 3. America 18%. Nat. Other 42%. 1. 學. Share of international student enrolments 2017. ‧. 立. y. 政治students Figure 1 Top study destinations for international 大 by student enrolments in 2017. Germany 5% Russia 4%. v ni. Source: OECD (2017) Education at a glance. Figures for China and Malaysia are from 2016 and Japan 2015, these figures were derived from UNESCO (2018). Over the years the education industry has grown so much so that it has become one of the top exports for these countries. In Australia for example, education has overtaken 5. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(7) traditional industries to become the 3rd largest export, behind iron and coal, and contributed over $28 billion AUD to the economy, with a 7.5% share growth of exports between 2016 and 2017 (Thirlwell, 2017). While in America, education was listed as its 6th largest service export in 2017, contributing over $43.1 billion USD to the economy (Export.gov, 2018). There are two ways that education services can be exported: onshore (foreign students entering a country for foreign education) or offshore (via internet, offshore campuses, correspondence, professors going overseas etc). This paper will focus on onshore education as this sector is the largest both in terms of student numbers and money generated. In Australia for example 71 per cent of international students were enrolled in courses onshore (ICEF Monitor, 2015a). These students contribute significantly more to the economy when taking into account tuition fees and other costs such as rent, food etc. There are five major sectors in education: higher education (including: bachelor,. 政治. 大Overseas Students (ELICOS), masters, and PHD), English Language Intensive Courses for 立. Vocational Education and Training (VET), schools, and other awards sectors. This study focused. ‧ 國. 學. on all sectors relevant to adult students (all sectors excluding schools).. io. sit. y. ‧. Nat. Statement of the Problem. n. al. er. In recent years there has been a huge number of international students going to. iv. C China Australia, America, UK, Canada etc. from and India, U ncreating a heavily reliance on these h. engchi. countries for international students. From Figure 2 it can be seen that Australia and America’s top two source countries for international students is China and India. In Australia, Chinese and Indian students make up over 38 percent of international students; America, UK and the EU share similar figures (ICEF Monitor, 2015b). This growing reliance on China and India for international students has created concern in the education industry, worried about a lack of diversity of international students. This lack of diversity creates two major issues for education institutions. The first being a lack of diversity of students on campus (ICEF Monitor, 2015b). The second and more serious, is the general reliance on these markets for students. The issue being that if for some reason Chinese or Indian students stop studying abroad or choose to study in other countries this could cripple Australia and America’s education industry (ICEF Monitor,. 6. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(8) 2015b). This has created a need for education institutions to increase the diversity of international students. Figure 2 America and Australia’s top source countries of international students by student visas granted in 2016 America's top 14 source countries for international students by student visas* granted 2016/17 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000. 政治大. 60,000 40,000. 立. 20,000. ‧ 國. ‧ er. io. sit. y. Nat. *F1, J1 and M1 student visas. 學. 0. n. a l of Consular Affairs Source: U.S. Department of State – Bureau i v (2017) Nonimmigrant Visa. Ch. Issuances by Visa Class and by Nationality. n engchi U. 7. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(9) Australia's top 15 source countries for international students by student visas* granted 2016 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0. *All student visas included. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Source: Australian Government, Department of immigration and Border Protection (2016). er. io. sit. y. Nat. International mobilisation of Taiwanese students. n. The number of Taiwanese a choosing to study abroad v has increased from just over. l. ni. C h2016 (MinistryUof Education, 2016). This growth in 8000 in the late 80s to over 63 thousand in en hi. gc. international education has been fuelled by three major factors. The lift of martial law in 1987 and changes in government policy promoting the linkages between universities and relaxing immigration laws, paved the way for international education. The Strong economic growth particularly during the 90s led to families having an increased capacity to send their children. abroad to study, and increased the demand for English language skills as Taiwanese businesses internationalised. Finally, Confucianism’s influence over Taiwan has resulted in a society that highly values education (Hall and Ames, 1987). Most Taiwanese students choose to study in traditionally popular countries, particularly English-speaking countries America, Australia, UK and Canada. While the bulk of Taiwanese choose to study in America, the number of students has seen little growth since 1998 (Figure 3). The United Kingdom, once the 2nd most popular destination, has seen a significant 8. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(10) drop in Taiwanese students and from 2014 dropped from 2nd to 4th most popular destination. Australia and Japan have steadily risen overtaking the UK to become the second and third most popular destination respectively. Figure 3 Top five study destinations for Taiwanese by student visas 1998-2016 25000. 20000. 15000. 10000. 立. 5000. ‧ 國. 學. 0. 政治大. America. Australia. Japan. ‧. 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 England. Nat. sit. y. Canada. n. al. er. io. Source: Collated from the Ministry of Education (2018), Taiwan Study Abroad Statistics. i Un. Ch. v. While Figure 3 represents the e number n g c hofi student visas issued to Taiwanese, this does not reflect the true number of Taiwanese studying abroad. Figure 4 provides a breakdown of the number of Taiwanese students studying in each country, irrespective of what visa they have. This is particularly important when looking at Australia as Taiwanese on a working holiday maker visa are able to study. While the order remains the same America, Australia, Japan and UK. The gap between number of Taiwanese studying in Australia and America is significantly diminished with a difference of only 4500 students.. 9. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(11) Figure 4 Total number of Taiwanese students (including those not on a student visa) in top five study destinations by country 2012-17 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 2012. 2013. 立. America. 政治 2015 大. 2014. Australia. Japan. 2016 England. 2017. Other. ‧ 國. 學. Source: Collated from the Ministry of Education (2018), Taiwan Study Abroad Statistics. ‧. n. er. io. al. sit. y. Nat. Purpose of the Study. i Un. Ch. v. g c h i what factors are important to The purpose of this research isetondetermine Taiwanese students in selecting a foreign country for study, comparing the top two study destinations: America and Australia. The growing reliance on China and India for international students has created a need to diversify. Taiwan is known as a consistent source of high quality students and represents one of the many markets that can be developed further to increase diversity of international students. While there have been a significant number of studies done on international education, there have been none using a combination of the Theory of Reasoned Action and the 4C framework to determine the antecedent variables behind the TRA. This study will benefit a number of stakeholders including government, universities, VET and ELICOS institutions looking at marketing their services to Taiwanese students.. 10. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(12) Chapter 2 Theory of Reasoned Action The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) was based upon the assumption that humans are rational and make systematic decisions based on accessible information (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The TRA theorises that behaviour is determined by the intention to act. The aim of the TRA is to predict and understand behaviour under volitional control (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The concept of volitional control is crucial to TRA as a person must have control over the performance or behaviour in order for intention to lead to behaviour. For example, a person intending to fly to Thailand may be unable to do so because the flights are sold out, thus being beyond their volitional control. The two factors which influence intention is治 attitude and subjective norms (Figure 5).. 政. Attitude towards a behaviour is the individuals positive or大 negative feelings towards a behaviour.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. This is assessed by the individual’s beliefs regarding the consequences of a behaviour, and whether or not those consequences are favourable. Subject norm is the individual’s perception of. ‧. whether people important to them (e.g. friends, family etc.) think the behaviour is favourable and. sit. y. Nat. whether or not it should be performed. The importance of the attitude or subjective norm was. er. io. expected to vary depending on the behaviour, situation, and individual differences (Ajzen &. n. Fishbein, 1980). For example, when aastudent is deciding if they v want study abroad, they had to. l C ni U h have a positive attitude about studying abroadeand n gtheir c h i friends and family had to be supportive of their education gaols. If these requirements were met, the person would most likely put the most effort into applying to institutions overseas, and according to the TRA the person would study overseas if they had volitional control to do so (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). The predictive. power of the TRA has been supported by numerous studies over the years and has become one of the most prevalent motivation theories in academic circles (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010).. 11. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(13) Figure 5 Theory of Reasoned Action framework. Attitude Intention. Behaviour. Subjective Norm Source: Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980. 政治. 4C Framework大. 立 ‧ 國. 學. Jyh-Shen Chiou’s (2014) 4C Framework is based on the concept that marketing is a tool used to solve the problem of exchange. In this process, consumers weigh up different costs when. ‧. looking at purchasing products or services. These costs have been divided into two sections;. Nat. sit. y. Explicit Unit Benefit Costs and Implicit Unit Benefit Costs. Explicit Unit benefit costs relate. er. io. specifically to cost and value, while Implicit Unit Benefit Costs can be broken up into. n. a. v. l C Asset Investmentn iCosts (Figure 6). After weighing Information Costs, Risk Costs and Specific. hen. hi U. c are willing to buy a product or service. up these costs consumers will determine whether gthey. 12. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(14) Figure 6 4C Framework. C1 Explicit Unit Benefit Costs. Implicit Unit Benefit Costs. C2 Information Costs. C3 Risk Costs. C4 Specific Asset Investment Costs 治. 政. Result. ‧ er. io. sit. y. Nat. Source: Chiou, 2014. 大. a. n. i.. 學. ‧ 國. 立. l C Explicit Unit Benefit Costs (C1). hengchi. i Un. v. Explicit Unit Benefit Costs (referred to as C1) refers to the total cost paid by a buyer to obtain a product or service divided by the total perceived benefit the buyer receives from said product or service (Figure 7). The costs include the total cost of product acquisition including transaction price, freight, installation fee, service fee, or handling fee (Chiou, 2014). While the benefits provided by the product or service itself may include tangible or intangible benefits (Chiou, 2014). Tangible benefits such as the products function, after-sales services, service personnel level and service environment quality, etc.; and intangible benefits such as showing off, psychological satisfaction and removal of other issues are included in the value. For buyers, the lower the C1, the better (Chiou, 2014). C1 can be reduced in two ways, either 13. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(15) decreasing the monetary costs associated with product or increasing the tangible or intangible benefits perceived by the buyer, as shown in Table 1 (Chiou, 2014).. C1 Explicit Unit Benefit Costs. Figure 7 Explicit Unit Benefit Cost (C1). Total Monetary Costs. Total Perceived Value. 政治大. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Source: Chiou, 2014. n. al Methods to Decrease Monetary Costs. Ch. Reach Economies of Scale and/or Scope Manufacturing Costs/R&D capabilities Manufacturing capabilities Distribution costs Other costs. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Table 1 Methods to reduce consumers (C1). Methods toi vIncrease Perceived Value. n e n gRequires c h i Ua clear understanding of the customers’ needs. R&D capability on developing products for consumer needs Total solution capability Ensure that product and service expectations are met after use Take note of any changes to market needs. Source: Chiou, 2014. 14. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(16) Information Costs (C2) Information Costs (referred to as C2) refers to the time and money that both parties need to invest to exchange information. Before a consumer purchases a product or service they must research said product or service to ensure it meets their needs. The lower the C2 the easier it is for consumers to access this information. For organisations, it is important to effectively make buyers aware of their positioning and key selling points in order to reduce the buyer's C2 (Chiou, 2014). Table 2 outlines methods to reduce C2. Table 2 Methods to reduce (C2) Manifest position治 in the market. 政. 大position Unique products/services 立. 學. Maintain long term consistent product/service position. ‧ 國. strategy. y. sit. Make use of the interactivity of online platform. io. Information Costs. Flexibility of using different communication channels. Nat. Methods to lower. ‧. Integrated marketing communication. er. ii.. n. a l introducing new innovative When products ensure that there iv. n. C. h e n gtoc hcompare i U too/benchmark are old products. Integrate traditional and current communication methods Increase the Information Costs involved around comparing different brands. 15. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(17) Risk Costs (C3) Risk Costs (referred to as C3) refers to the buyer's suspicion that the product or service is really what the seller claims. Even if both sides of the transaction have clearly defined the subject matter, the buyer will still have doubts about whether the product/service will have the promised functions, specifications, services or other agreements. Therefore, for the buyer, the lower the C3 the better (Chiou, 2014). The buyer's Risk Cost can be further divided into three types: 1. Capability: whether the seller has the ability to meet the contract. When the buyer signs up or purchases a product, he or she is concerned about whether the manufacturer can provide the promised product or service.. 政治. 大the terms agreed on in the contract. 2. Promise: whether the seller will abide by all 立. Even if the manufacturer has the ability to complete the products or services. 學. ‧ 國. described in the contract, there is a chance that they will not follow through on the. ‧. agreement.. y. the situation with the buyer’s interests at heart.. io. sit. Nat. 3. Benevolence (empathy): If there is an unexpected situation, the seller will handle. er. iii.. al. n. iv n C The above three kinds of Risk Costs the following characteristics: h e nhave gchi U -. Reducing C2 cannot completely eliminate a consumer’s C3: many transactions cannot be fully understood through prior information, so even if both buyers and sellers reduce their Information Costs, Risk Costs will still exist.. -. Halo Effect: C3 is a subjective perception that is established through long-term transactions between buyers and sellers, and if not treated appropriately can affect the introduction of new products or services.. -. Rough assessment of C3 levels: if buyers fail to fully understand the risks they face, they will assess the Risk Costs of the product through endorsements, advertising, or brand image.. 16. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(18) -. The importance of benevolence (empathy): the most effective time to reduce C3 is when a problem occurs. If a seller is able to quickly and effectively resolve the issue and take the interests of the buyer as a priority, this will greatly increase the buyer’s trust in said company.. Improving C3 is often difficult and requires establishing a long-term trustful relationship between parties, and putting the needs of the consumer first. Table 3 outlines methods to reduce consumers C3 (Chiou, 2014). Table 3 Methods to reduce Risk Costs (C3) For all Companies. For new companies. 治政 Establish 大reference cases. Ensure that product and services match. 立. Always consider the customers interests first. 學. ‧ 國. company descriptions. Cooperate with reputable well-established. ‧. vendors to incur positive spill over effects Get recommendations or endorsements from. y. Nat. Uphold company image when challenged. io. sit. reputable stakeholders Maintain transparency. n. al. er. Special Care of customers usage and satisfaction. Ch. engchi. Increase customers’ trust in the company as a. i Un. v. Provide an extended warranty period. whole rather than on specific employees Maintain a comprehensive product. Provide unconditional return guarantee. development roadmap Establish an empathetic image towards consumers (putting the consumer first) Source: Chiou, 2014. 17. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(19) iv.. Specific Asset Investment Costs (C4) Specific Asset Investment costs (referred to as C4) is the cost incurred by the buyer in order to maintain the value of a product or service. The time, money and energy that has been invested into the buying of products or services are often unable to be transferred. This means that customers must maintain the relationship with seller to maintain the product/services value and ensure that this investment is not lost. This means that from the buyers’ perspective the lower the C4 the better (Chiou, 2014). The seller on the other hand, hopes that the buyer invests high levels of C4, ‘trapping’ the buyer and creating an exclusive relationship. An example of this is Apple’s IOS system, the more consumers invest into understanding how to use it the higher their C4, this is because they become familiar with the system and if they. 政治. 大 decide to change systems e.g. Android their knowledge in IOS will be worthless. 立. Methods used by companies to increase C4 are shown in Table 4 (Chiou, 2014).. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. Table 4 Methods to increase Specific Asset Investment Costs (C4). y. Nat. Product Knowledge. - Company’s product instructions. Related. C h product classification - Company-specific methods and instructions Un. er. al. n. specific assets. sit. Commonly used methods. io. Categories. engchi. iv. - Company-specific complementary product instructions Hardware and. - DIY systems. software. - Unique parts. specific assets. - Unique specifications - Company-specific system integration - Patents - Use of unique software. Staff or system. - Unique credit assets. intangible assets. - Customer Knowledge - Established relationships between company and customers - Communication efficiency between company and customers 18. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(20) Brand. Psychological. - Brand specific experiences or memories. Related. recognition. - Intrinsic meaning. Societal. - Group pressure. pressure. - Influence from opinion leaders. Promotion related. - Accumulated mileage points - Bonuses/vouchers - Cash credit. Source: Chiou, 2014. Conceptual Model and Hypothesis. 政治. This study used a combination of the Theory of Reasoned 大 Action and the 4C framework. 立. to determine what are the important factors to Taiwanese students in selecting a study. ‧ 國. 學. destination. The 4C framework was used to determine what antecedent variables make up the. ‧. Attitude construct in the TRA model (Figure 8). The overall hypothesis is that these antecedent. y. Nat. variables will have a positive influence on the Overall Attitude, which will lead to a positive. io. sit. influence on Intention to study overseas. Social Norm was theorised to influence the Overall. l. er. n. Attitude construct as per the 4C framework and the Intention construct as per the Theory of a. iv. n C hrelevant to Taiwanese Reasoned Action. In order to find the issues a combination of literature i U. engch. analysis and in-depth interviews with Taiwanese seeking to study abroad, an education agent and the education manager of the Australian Office were conducted. The factors were narrowed down to Education Quality, Price/Value, Trust, Understanding, Career Prospects and Social Norm.. 19. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(21) Figure 8 Conceptual framework of the study. C1. Education Quality. C1. Price/Value. H2. C3. Trust. H3. H1. H4 Understanding. H5 H7. y. sit. n. al. er. (Subjective Norm). io. Social Norm. Nat. H6. C1 C4. Intention. ‧. Career Prospects. 政治大. 學. C1. 立. ‧ 國. C2. H8. Overall Attitude. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. The research hypothesis’ are as follows: The 4C framework’s C1 is the sum of the price divided by the value that is given by a product or service (Figure 7), the overall goal of C1 is to determine whether or not students think that studying overseas is worth the money. The actual cost of studying abroad can include a variety of factors yet ultimately the largest costs revolve around tuition fees. The perceived value that students will get out of studying overseas also are as equally varied and are subjective to each student and study destination. According to Baker et el. (1996) in a survey of international students in Australia the most significant included quality of institutions & courses, good reputation, and the potential for improved job prospects. In previous studies of Taiwanese 20. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(22) students enhanced job prospects was found to be especially important (Chen and Zimitat, 2006; Muthaly, Lobo, and Song Jen-Yuan, 2013). Rankings, are also important as they are a simple tool that allow the public to compare universities’ quality across regions and countries (Warwick and Mansfield, 2003). The following hypothesis has been formulated relating to Information Cost (C1): H1: Perceived quality of education will have a positive correlation on overall attitude. H2: Perceived value for money will have a positive correlation on overall attitude. H5: Perceived career prospects will have a positive correlation on overall attitude. The 4C framework’s C2 is about the time, money and effort that a consumer must spend to find out the information they need regarding a product or service. For students, this means. 政治. how easy is it for them to find the information they need to大 study abroad, this could include. 立. information about programs, living expenses, visas etc. The easier it is to access required. ‧ 國. 學. information the lower the C2, making that country a more favourable place to study (Chiou,. ‧. 2014). The following hypothesis has been formulated regarding the Information Cost (C2):. y. Nat. er. io. sit. H4. A strong Understanding of the countries education system and easy access to. n. relevant information will haveaa positive correlation on overall attitude.. iv l C n hengchi U. According to the 4C Framework C3 is the buyer’s suspicion that a product or service will be delivered as promised. For international students who are spending a considerable amount of time and money to study overseas, trust in institutions is crucial. If students do not believe that they will get what they are paying for then it is unlikely that they will want to study in said country. As per the C3 construct students must believe that the institution has the capability to provide the promised service. That the institution will hold up their end of the bargain and provide the service that they initially promised. Finally, if there are some issues along the way that the institution will resolve them with the students’ best interests at heart. The following hypothesis has been formulated regarding the Risk Cost (C3): H3: Trust in the education system will have a positive correlation on overall attitude. 21. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(23) Social Norm has been conceptualized as C1 and C4 under the 4C Framework. Taiwan, being a highly collectivist society that values the opinion of others, positive impressions can be considered value adding under C1. That is if a student chooses to study in a particular country overseas, and this decision is praised by those around them, they would see this as increasing the value of studying in said location. In terms of C4, societal pressure such as group pressure and influence from opinion leaders can all influence these students. This influence could come from a range of people including friends, family, education agents, counselors or alumni. Taking this into account the following hypothesis has been developed: H6: Social norms regarding international education will have a positive correlation on overall attitude.. 立. 政治大. As per the Theory of Reasoned Action, Subjective Norm (here referred to as Social. ‧ 國. 學. Norm) will have a direct influence on intention (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). This is to say that if. ‧. those important to a student e.g. friends and family think that a student should study overseas,. y. Nat. then this will directly influence their intention to study overseas. Past studies on Taiwanese. er. io. sit. students have supported this theory (Chen and Zimitat, 2006). Keeping this in mind the. n. following hypothesis has been developed: a. iv l C n hengchi U. H7: Social norms regarding international education will have a positive correlation on Intention. As per the Theory of Reasoned Action, Attitude (here referred to as Overall Attitude) will have a direct influence on intention (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). In this study, the antecedent variables behind attitude have been developed using the 4C framework, the results of these factors will make up the Overall Attitude. The following hypothesis has been developed in relation to the Overall Attitude construct: H8: Overall attitude towards international study will have a positive correlation to intention. 22. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(24) Chapter 3 Methodology The study was based on Fishbein and Ajzens’s (1980) TRA with the antecedent variables behind the Overall Attitude construct derived from Chiou’s (2014) 4C Framework. Research Design & Sample The data required for this research was collected by means of a consumer-type survey. A questionnaire was developed with 32 items adapted from previously validated scales (Appendix A). The respondents were required to indicated their rating using a five point Likert-type scale, 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. The survey was first pre-tested on ten Taiwanese and. 治政大 translated to Chinese to ensure that changes were made to some of the questions. The survey was 立 the participants understood the questions, and then back translation technique was used to. ‧ 國. 學. analyse the data.. ‧. Due to the difficulty in finding participants a non-probalistic sampling procedure was. y. Nat. used (convenience sampling). Taiwanese who planned to study in Australia or America in the have an intention to study in Americaaor Australia.. er. io. sit. near future were targeted. There was an upfront screening question eliminating those who did not. n. iv l C n The survey was administered through of online and offline channels. The h ea nnumber gchi U. survey was posted online on a Taiwanese forum ‘PTT’ and on Facebook in relevant groups related to study in Australia and America. The surveys were also administered and collected at an international education exhibition held in Taipei and at a career fair at the National Taiwan University. A total of 350 surveys were administered, 14 of which were excluded due to being incomplete, leaving a total of 336 useable samples (Australia N = 173, America N = 163). The descriptive data for those surveyed can be found on Table 5. Overall, the descriptive statistics for Australia and America have similar break downs in terms of gender, age, and time until planned overseas study. The descriptive statistics for the constructs can be found in Table 6.. 23. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(25) Table 5 Descriptive statistics for survey respondents. Variable. Country. Item. Frequency. Percent. Cumulative Percent. Gender. Australia America. Age. Australia. Male. 76. 43.9. 43.9. Female. 97. 56.1. 100. Male. 77. 47.2. 47.2. Female. 86. 52.8. 100. 19 or under. 16. 9.2. 9.2. 20-23. 71. 41. 50.3. 24-26. 41. 23.7. 74. 14.5. 88.4. 11.6. 100. 9.8. 9.8. 41.1. 50.9. 政 25治大 31 and over 20 立 16. 20-23. 67. 24-26. 51. 31.3. ‧. 82.2. 27-30. 23. 14.1. y. 96.3. 31 and over. 6. 100. al < 6 months. 34. Nat. n. Australia. io. Time until. Ch. 3.7. er. ‧ 國. 19 or under. 學. America. sit. 27-30. i Un. v. 19.7. 19.7. 37.6. 57.2. overseas. 6-12 months. e n 65 gchi. study. 12-18 month. 35. 20.2. 77.5. > 18 months. 39. 22.5. 100. < 6 months. 28. 17.2. 17.2. 6-12 months. 23. 14.1. 31.3. 12-18 months. 41. 25.2. 56.4. > 18 months. 71. 43.6. 100. Bachelor. 32. 18.5. 18.5. Master. 112. 64.7. 83.2. PHD. 6. 3.5. 86.7. ELICOS. 7. 4. 90.8. America. Degree of study. Australia. 24. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(26) America. Vocational. 16. 9.2. 100. Bachelor. 12. 7.4. 7.4. Master. 121. 74.2. 81.6. PHD. 22. 13.5. 95.1. ELICOS. 7. 4.3. 99.4. Vocational. 1. 0.6. 100. Table 6 Constructs Descriptive Statistics. Standard Deviation .67282. Price/Value. 3.4408. .73613. ‧. 3.5000. 3.3526. .84275. y. 3.3333. 3.7769. .71556. 3.8000. .67956 hengchi Un. 4.0000. iv. n. al. er. io. Trust. sit. 4.0751. Nat. Education Quality Understanding. Career Prospects America. Median. 學. Australia. 立Mean. Variable. ‧ 國. Country. 政治大. 3.9798 C. 4.0000. Social Norm. 3.8092. .76944. 3.7500. Education Quality. 4.4736. .49589. 4.6000. Price/Value. 3.1120. .65508. 3.0000. Understanding. 3.6503. .68674. 3.6667. Trust. 3.8822. .59907. 4.0000. Career Prospects. 4.0537. .62592. 4.0000. Social Norm. 4.1319. .63423. 4.0000. 25. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(27) Reliability & Validity Analysis SPSS version 23 was used to analyse the survey data. Firstly, a factor analysis was conducted to confirm the validity of the questions. Cronbach’s α was used to confirm the reliability of the questions in each construct, all constructs met the 0.6 threshold required, thus it was assumed that the survey was valid to conduct further analysis. Table 7 Variables Reliability Analysis. Country. Variable. Number of questions. Cronbach’s α. Australia. Education Quality. 5. .862. Price/Value Understanding. 立. .809 .927. Social Norm. 4. Overall Attitude. 4. y. .912. Intention. 3. .918. n. al. Price/Value. Ch. 5. e n4g c h i U. er. io. Education Quality. .706. ‧. 4. sit. 學. Career Prospects. Nat. America. .770. 5. ‧ 國. Trust. 4 政3 治大. v ni. .846. .807 .733. Understanding. 3. .685. Trust. 5. .839. Career Prospects. 4. .625. Social Norm. 4. .816. Overall Attitude. 4. .825. Intention. 3. .902. 26. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(28) Chapter 4 Results Regression Analysis Table 8 shows the correlation analysis between the six variables and the Overall Attitude construct, while table 9 shows the regression analysis between the six variables and Overall Attitude construct. Table 8 Antecedent Variables and Overall Attitude Correlation Analysis. 立. Education Quality. Career Prospects Social Norm America. Education Quality Price/Value. .000. er. al. Pearson Correlation. Ch. .405** .000. sit. Sig. (2-tailed). n. Trust. Sig. (2-tailed). ‧. io. Understanding. .451**. Pearson Correlation. Nat. Price/Value. Pearson Correlation. y. Australia. Overall Attitude. ‧ 國. Variable. 學. Country. 政治大. v ni. .390**. (2-tailed) e n gSig. chi U. .000. Pearson Correlation. .416**. Sig. (2-tailed). .000. Pearson Correlation. .478**. Sig. (2-tailed). .000. Pearson Correlation. .644**. Sig. (2-tailed). .000. Pearson Correlation. .366**. Sig. (2-tailed). .000. Pearson Correlation. .164*. Sig. (2-tailed). 0.36. 27. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(29) Understanding Trust Career Prospects Social Norm. Pearson Correlation. .249**. Sig. (2-tailed). .001. Pearson Correlation. .369**. Sig. (2-tailed). .000. Pearson Correlation. .360**. Sig. (2-tailed). .000. Pearson Correlation. .503**. Sig. (2-tailed). .000. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * . Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).. Dependent. Independent. Variable. Variable .094. .083. .085. .066. Ch. e n g.055 .063 chi. Sig.. VIF. y. .274. t 2.658. .009. sit. Understanding. .729. 1.301. .258. 2.318. .078 v. 1.135. .195. 1.744. .019. .209. .258. 1.630. .093. er. al. n. Price/Value. Beta. ‧. Education Quality. io. Attitude. Constant. Std. error. Nat. Australia Overall. B. 學. Country. ‧ 國. 政治大 Table 9 Variables and Overall Attitude Regression Analysis 立. i Un. Trust. .018. .086. .178. 2.674. .835. 2.802. Career Prospects. .178. .066. .490. 8.115. .008**. 1.513. Social Norm. .432. .056. .093. 1.135. .000**. 1.253. R = .720 R Square = .519 Adjusted R Square = .501 Std. Error of the Estimate = .47843 * indicates P-value <0.1 ** indicates P-value <0.05 America. Overall. Constant. 1.151 .348. 3.305. .001. Attitude. Education Quality. .131. .072. .133. 1.828. .069*. 1.350. Price/Value. .054. .048. .072. 1.129. .261. 1.050. Understanding. -.001. .052. -.001. -.020. .984. 1.370. Trust. .105. .065. .129. 1.616. .108. 1.629. 28. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(30) Career Prospects. .170. .054. .218. 3.131. .002**. 1.238. Social Norm. .314. .051. .407. 6.204. .000**. 1.099. R = .625 R Square = .390 Adjusted R Square = .367 Std. Error of the Estimate = .38928 * indicates P-value <0.1 ** indicates P-value <0.05 From Table 8 it can be seen that all the antecedent variables are positively correlated to Overall Attitude for both Australia and America at the 0.01 level, except for the American Price/Value variable which is significant at 0.05. It was thus assumed that there was an adequate correlation to perform exploratory regression analysis. The regression analysis of the six antecedent variables and the Overall Attitude construct (Table 9) for Australia show that there is support for H5 and H6 (p-value < 0.05). While America’s regression analysis for the six variables and the Overall Attitude construct. 治政大 < 005). (Table 9) shows that there is support for H1, H5 and H6 (p-value 立 ‧ 國. 學. Australia. Intention. al. Ch. error. Constant. 1.563. Overall. .588. e.347 ngchi .085. sit. Std.. Beta. t. Sig.. VIF. er. Variable. B. n. Variable. io. Dependent Independent. y. Nat. Country. ‧. Table 10 Overall Attitude and Intention Regression Analysis. i Un .470. v. 4.499. .000. 6.930. .000**. 1.000. Attitude R = .470 R Square = .221 Adjusted R Square = .217 Std. Error of the Estimate = .74772 America. Intention. Constant. 1.151. .539. Overall. .666. .125. .388. 2.137. .034. 5.343. .000**. 1.000. Attitude R = .388 R Square = .151 Adjusted R Square = .145 Std. Error of the Estimate = .77620 * indicates P-value <0.1 ** indicates P-value <0.05. 29. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(31) Table 10 shows the regression relationship between the Overall Attitude and Intention constructs. It can be seen that the Overall Attitude has a significant positive influence on Intention for both Australia and America, which supports H7 for both countries.. Table 11 Variables and Overall Attitude and Intention Regression Analysis. Country Australia. Dependent. Independent. Variable. Variable. Intention. B. Std.. Beta. t. Sig.. VIF. error. Constant. .574. .405. Overall Attitude. .228. .115. Education Quality. .209. .121. Price/Value. .159. .182. 1.981. .049** 2.145. .165. 1.728. .086*. 2.319. -.495. .621. 1.796. 治.096 -0.42 政 -0.48 大 .289. 3.602. .000** 1.636. -.140. .124. -.118. -1.128. .261. 2.792. Career Prospects. .153. .098. .123. 1.560. .121. 1.574. Social Norm. .185. .094. .168. 1.977. .050** 1.836. Trust. ‧ 國. .080. ‧. .289. 學. 立 Understanding. 1.416. y. Nat. io. sit. R = .599 R Square = .359 Adjusted R Square = .331 Std. Error of the Estimate = .69095. al. n. America. Intention. Constant. Overall Attitude. er. * indicates P-value <0.1 ** indicates P-value <0.05. C h-.355 .690U n i engchi. v. -.514. .608. .428. .153. .249. 2.787. .006** 1.640. Education Quality. .227. .139. .134. 1.632. .105. 1.379. Price/Value. .100. .092. .078. 1.082. .281. 1.059. Understanding. .310. .100. .254. 3.103. .002** 1.370. Trust. -.050. .126. -.036. -.396. .693. 1.657. Career Prospects. -.024. .107. -.018. -.225. .822. 1.315. Social Norm. .089. .108. .067. .820. .414. 1.370. R = .495 R Square = .245 Adjusted R Square = .211 Std. Error of the Estimate = .74600 * indicates P-value <0.1 ** indicates P-value <0.05. 30. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(32) Table 11 shows the regression relationship between the six antecedent variables and Overall Attitude with the Intention construct. For Australia, it can be seen that there is a significant relationship between Overall Attitude, Education Quality, Understanding, and Social Norm with the Intention Construct. While America, there is a significant relationship between Overall Attitude and Understanding. The results have been mapped using the original model for the study: Australia (Figure 9), America (Figure 10); and have also been included in a comparison table (Figure 11).. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 31. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(33) Figure 9 Australian Results. .165** .289* Education Quality. H1. H2. Trust. H3. 立. Overall Attitude. H4. sit. er. io. n. .093** a. H6. Intention. y. Nat. .490** H5. Career Prospects. H8 .182**. ‧. Understanding. 政治大學. ‧ 國. Price/Value. H7 .168**i v l C hengchi Un. Social Norm. Please note: a solid line represents that there was a significant relationship, while a dotted line indicates that the relationship was not significant.. 32. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(34) Figure 10 American Results. .254**. Education Quality. H1 .133**. Trust. H2. 政治大. H3. 立 H4. Understanding. 學. Overall Attitude. ‧ 國. Price/Value. .249**. Ch. sit. y. n. al. H7. engchi. er. .407**. io H6. Intention. ‧. Nat. .218** H5 Career Prospects. H8. i Un. v. Social Norm. Please note: a solid line represents that there was a significant relationship, while a dotted line indicates that the relationship was not significant.. 33. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(35) Figure 11 Australian and American Results Comparison Table. Australia. America. Education Quality. Influences intention. Influences overall attitude. Price/Value. Not significant. Not significant. Trust. Not significant. Not significant. Understanding. Influences intention. Influences intention. Career Prospects. Influences overall attitude. Influences overall attitude. Social Norm. Influences both intention and. Influences overall attitude. overall attitude. 立. 政治大 Chapter 5. ‧ 國. 學. Discussion and Conclusion. ‧. y. Nat. This study has used the Theory of Reasoned Action with antecedent variables derived. io. sit. from the 4C Framework to investigate the motivations for Taiwanese in selecting a study. l. er. n. destination. While it was found that the a same constructs, Education Quality, Understanding,. iv. C h Attitude, were Career Prospects, Social Norms, and Overall U nimportant to Taiwanese regardless of. engchi. whether they wanted to study in America or Australia, there were differences in the results (Figure 9 and Figure 10). The following section will provide some reason as to why this may be, and discuss the implications this may have to relevant stakeholders.. Australia Australia has been one of the top study destinations for Taiwanese international students for over 20 years, that being said the actual number of Taiwanese students going to Australia to study has been dwarfed by America and the United Kingdom. In recent years, a combination of political and economic stability and the popularity of the Working Holiday Maker program has significantly increased the number of young Taiwanese going to Australia. The Working Holiday 34. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(36) Maker program has also has had a direct influence on the number of Taiwanese choosing Australia as a study destination across all education sectors, with a growing number of international students once holding a working holiday maker visa (Australian Trade and Investment Commission, Austrade Taiwan, 2017). This puts Australia in a strong position to further promote its education services in the market. Education Quality. Education Quality was found to have an insignificant effect on Overall Attitude, disproving H1, however was found to directly influence Taiwanese’s Intention to study in Australia (Figure 9). This could be due to Australia, historically not being a popular destination for study in Taiwan, meaning that long-term attitudes towards Australia’s education quality have not yet been formed, especially compared to America. In other words, Taiwanese students do not have a pre-convinced idea that Australia has quality education. The fact that the. 政治. 大 that the type of student that goes Education Quality construct directly affects Intention, suggests 立. to Australia is more practical compared to those who go to America.. ‧ 國. 學. Price/Value. It was interesting to find that the Price/Value of education did not affect. ‧. Taiwanese students’ Overall Attitude to studying in Australia. This may be due to the sample. y. already weighed up the costs of studying abroad.. er. io. sit. Nat. itself, as the participants already had the intention to study in Australia and they may have Trust. The Trust construct was a also found not to influence Overall Attitude. While there. n. iv l C n is little publicity on Australia in Taiwan, it h is emostly in ia positive light and Australian products ngch U. are generally considered fresh, healthy and safe. It is possible that this positive image has spilled over into other Australian industries, including Education. Understanding. The Understanding construct’s influence on Overall Attitude (H4) was not supported by the study. However, it was found to have a direct influence on Intention. It does make sense that the easier it is for Taiwanese to access information (removing the barriers to studying overseas) the more likely it is to increase their intention to study in said location. Career Prospects. The popularity of Australia’s Working Holiday Maker program in Taiwan over the past ten years has significantly increased Australia’s profile in the market as a career destination. During a/ working holiday Taiwanese are able to both work and study in Australia. This has brought to light career opportunities in Australia and the quality of the work environment. Australian policies that favour international students in providing work and 35. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(37) immigration pathways to Australia have also created strong career prospects for international students. Social Norm. The Social Norm construct was found to influence both Overall Attitude (H6), and Intention (H7). Taiwan is a collective and Confucius society that highly values education, so it makes sense that social acceptance to study overseas is an important factor in choosing a study destination. These results show that Taiwanese students are more vulnerable to social influences when choosing to study at an Australian institution. They are more likely to be influenced by friends, family and those around them compared to those who want to study in America. These results have strong implications for Australian education industry, who needs to ensure that not only potential students have a positive image of Australia, but also important social influencers such as friends and family.. 立. 政治大 America. ‧ 國. 學. America has been the number one study destination for Taiwanese students for over 30. ‧. years, which has greatly influenced the perception of American education in the market. This is the result of long standing political ties and work opportunities in America, especially during the. y. Nat. io. sit. 90’s. The large number of American alumni also perpetuates the popularity of America as a. n. al. er. study destination. This being said, America has seen little growth in student numbers since 1980. iv. (Figure 3). In order to continue to hold itsCnumber one position U n and stay competitive in the h. engchi. market, America must revaluate its marketing strategy and the services on offer. Education Quality. Education Quality was found to influence Overall Attitude supporting H1. America has been the number one study destination for Taiwanese students for over 30 years and this long-standing popularity has resulted in the forming of strong attitudes regarding American education. The large number of American alumni who currently hold highlevel managerial and political positions of power perpetuate this reputation. Price/Value. It was interesting to find that the Price/Value of education did not affect Taiwanese Overall Attitude to studying in America. Participants of the survey already had the intention to study in America, thus for this sample the cost of studying in America may be an irrelevant factor as they have already weighed up the cost/value. 36. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(38) Trust. The Trust construct was also found not to influence Overall Attitude. America’s reputation as the number one study destination and the large number of American alumni who now hold positions of power, may have solidified Taiwanese trust in the American education system. Understanding. Understanding did not have an influence on Overall Attitude (H4), however did have a direct influence on Intention (Figure 10). It does make sense that the easier it is for Taiwanese to access information (removing the barriers to studying overseas) the more likely it is to increase their intention to study in said location. Career Prospects. Career Prospects were found to directly influence the Overall Attitude construct, supporting H5. In the past vast numbers of Taiwanese have immigrated to America and have benefited from abundant career opportunities. Those who studied in America and returned to Taiwan are now working as upper level managers, politicians and professors. Alumni. 政治. 大 career opportunities after networks also provide an informal way for Taiwanese to create 立. studying in America. These have resulted in a perception that American education leads to more. ‧ 國. 學. career opportunities.. ‧. Social Norm. While the Social Norm construct did not influence Intention (H7) it did. y. Nat. influence Overall Attitude (H6). This may be due to America’s long-standing popularity as a. er. io. sit. study destination in Taiwan, which has resulted in the forming of strong attitudes regarding studying in America. It is curious however, that Social Norm does not directly influence a. n. iv l C n intention as it did with Australia. This means Taiwanese students who want to study in h ethat ngchi U America are less likely to be influenced by social influencers compared to Australia.. Recommendations for America and Australia The implications of this study are relevant to the stakeholders of Australian and American education, particularly government, agents and institutions. The findings from this study will allow these stakeholders to better understand the motivation factors for Taiwanese in choosing a foreign country to study. These factors can be used to improve the services on offer and marketing promotions. In terms of the 4C Framework’s C1, it was found that the Education Quality, Career Prospects and Social Norm were all influencers on Taiwanese decision making process. The 37. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(39) quality of education should be continued to be promoted by both countries. This is especially evident for Australia, as Taiwanese do not strongly connect Australia with good quality education and Education Quality was found to directly influence intentions. This being said education providers must also continue to improve their services and ensure that international students are getting what they want. Career prospects are also of great importance in improving the value of studying abroad, whether that be improving their career prospects in Taiwan or abroad. This can be done through work placements, internships or even immigration pathways. The C2 construct’s Understanding has been seen as extremely important in influencing Taiwanese intention to study abroad. Both countries should continue to make information more accessible to international students, as this will directly affect their intention to study in said country. This information should be accessible through numerous platforms and should merge traditional and modern ways of communicating, including online campaigns and education. 政治. 大 events. As Taiwanese have also been found to be highly dependent on information received from 立. through either education agents or other representatives.. 學. ‧ 國. others it is crucial to maintain in market representation (Mazzarol, 1997), which could be. ‧. The study also found that Taiwanese intending to study in Australia are particular. y. Nat. susceptible to social influencers. Australia must ensure that education services are not only. er. io. sit. promoted to potential students, but also important social influencers. These influencers include peers, parents, agents, high school counselors etc. In order to capture the growing number of a. n. iv l C n younger students seeking to study abroad, stakeholders U target high school guidance h e n g c h ishould. counselors as they have also been found to be key ‘non-marketing’ information source (Lai, Gibson, and Muthaly, 2014). Finally, alumni are another information source that is greatly underutilized in promoting Australian and American education to potential students in Taiwan.. Limitations and Further Research There are several limitations which can be addressed for future research. This study used a small sample size that was derived using a snowballing method with surveys being administered both through online and offline channels. It is most likely that a bulk of participants are either from or currently living in Northern Taiwan. A larger sample size of Taiwanese across the island would provide a more well-rounded sample. The sample was also made up of 38. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(40) Taiwanese who already had the intention to study in Australia or America, which could have influenced the results. Future studies should be conducted on Taiwanese who do not yet have an intention to study abroad. This is the first time that the 4C Framework, and a combination of the 4C Framework and TRA, have been used to study international education. While the TRA has been used in many studies in the past looking at range of topics including international education, this is not the case for the 4C Framework. In the future, a study should be conducted only using the 4C Framework. Although there have been some studies researching the decision-making factors for Taiwanese in studying overseas, there has been little longitudinal research conducted. Longitudinal research is crucial in determining international student’s satisfaction before, during and after studying abroad. Alumni is another area that requires further research. Areas such as alumni’s satisfaction with their study abroad experience and differences between international. 政治. graduates and local graduates career prospects are all areas大 that can be studied.. 立. While there have been numerous studies which have found that social influencers are. ‧ 國. 學. important to Taiwanese students in selecting a study destination. There has been little research. ‧. into what social influencers are most important and how they exactly influence them. Research. y. sit. io. n. al. er. students.. Nat. needs to be conducted into what social influencers are most affective at influencing Taiwanese. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 39. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(41) Reference Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Australian Government, Department of immigration and Border Protection. (2016). Student visa and temporary graduate visa program trends. https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/statistics/studentvisa-trends-2015-16.pdf Australian Trade and Investment Commission, Austrade Taiwan. (2017). Taiwan Working Holiday Makers: The Transition to Study. https://www.austrade.gov.au/australian/education/news/reports/taiwan-working-holidaymakers-report-the-transition-to-study. 政治大 Baker, M., Creedy, J. and Johnson, D. (1996). Financing and Effects of Internationalisation of 立 ‧ 國. Canberra.. 學. Higher Education: An Australian Study. Australian Government Printing Service,. ‧. Bohm, C., Daris, F., Meares, H. and Pearce, T. (2002). Global Student Mobility 2025: Forecasts. sit. y. Nat. of the Global Demand for International Higher Education. IDP, Canberra.. er. io. Chen, C. and Zimitat, C. (2006). Understanding Taiwanese students' decision-making factors. n. regarding Australian international Journal of Educational a higher education. International iv. l C hengchi Un Management, 20(2), pp.91-100. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540610646082. Chiou, J.S. (2014). Strategic Marketing Analysis: Framework and Practical Applications (4th ed.). Taipei: Best Wise. Export.gov. (2018). Education and Training Services Resources Guide 2018. https://2016.export.gov/industry/education/eg_main_108888.asp Gov.UK. (2016). Youth Mobility Scheme 2017 for Taiwanese Students. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/youth-mobility-scheme-2017-for-taiwanese-youth2 Fishbein, M., Ajzen I. (2010). Predicting and Changing Behaviour: The Reasoned Action Approach. New York, N.Y.: Psychology Press. Hall, D.L., and Ames, R.T. (1987). Thinking through Confucius, New York State Univeristy, New York, N.Y. 40. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(42) ICEF Monitor. (2015a). The State of International Student Mobility in 2015. http://monitor.icef.com/2015/11/the-state-of-international-student-mobility-in-2015/ ICEF Monitor. (2015b). The China challenge: Diversification and managing risk in international education. http://monitor.icef.com/2015/03/china-challenge-diversificationmanaging-risk-international-education/ Lai, A., Gibson, P. and Muthaly, S. (2014). Becoming an education provider of choice in Hong Kong: an inquiry into student decision making. International Journal of Educational Management, 28(5), pp.590-609. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-05-2013-0082 Ministry of Education. (2018). Taiwan Study Abroad Statistics. https://depart.moe.edu.tw/ed2500/News.aspx?n=2D25F01E87D6EE17&sms=4061A635 7922F45A Muthaly, S., C. Lobo, A. and Song Jen-Yuan, J. (2013). Marketing of postgraduate education in. 政治. Taiwan: issues for foreign universities. Asia Pacific大Journal of Marketing and Logistics,. 立. 25(1), pp.118-130. https://doi.org/10.1108/13555851311290966. ‧ 國. 學. OECD. (2017). Education at a glance 2017. https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-. ‧. at-a-glance-2017_eag-2017-en#page292. y. Nat. Thirlwell, M. (2017). Australia’s export performance in FY2017.. er. io. fy2017. sit. https://www.austrade.gov.au/News/Economic-analysis/australias-export-performance-in-. al. n. iv n C UNESCO. (2018). Inbound Internationallyhmobile by country of origin. e n g students chi U http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?queryid=172. U.S. Department of State – Bureau of Consular Affairs. (2017). Nonimmigrant Visa Issuances by Visa Class and by Nationality. https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/legal/visalaw0/visa-statistics/nonimmigrant-visa-statistics.html Warwick, J. and Mansfield, P. (2003). Perceived Risk in College Selection: Differences in Evaluative Criteria Used by Students and Parents. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 13(1-2), pp.101-125. https://doi.org/10.1300/J050v13n01_07. 41. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(43) Appendix A – English Survey. Firstly, please select your preferred study destination, this country will replace X in all the questions below. United States of America. 1 - Strongly Disagree 2 – Disagree 3 – Neutral. 4 - Agree. n. er. io. sit. Nat. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. (Please tick only one box per question) A. Education Quality 1. I can learn a lot at an X institute. 2. X institutes have good library and computer facilities. 政治大 3. X institutes professors are good at teaching. 4. X Education is recognised across立 the world. 5. X institutes are ranked highly on global rankings. B. Price/Value 1. X higher education is good value for money. 2. Studying in X is a good investment. 3. X education is economical. 4. X education is worth the price. C. Education Understanding 1. I have a good understanding of the a X education system. i v 2. I have done extensive research on lXCeducation. n h e n g cinh X. i U 3. I find it easy to access information on studying D. Trust 1. X education institutes are very honest. 2. X education institutes are very reliable. 3. X education institutes are responsible. 4. X education institutes understand its student’s needs. 5. X education institutes are always professional. E. Career Prospect 1. Studying in X will improve my career prospects. 2. Studying in X will improve my career prospects in Taiwan. 3. I can work while studying in X. 4. Studying X offers an easier pathway to migration.. 5 - Strongly Agree. y. Australia. 42. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

(44) F. Social Norm 1. Most people who are important to me would probably consider me going to X to study __________. 2. Most people who are important to me would probably think I _______ study in X. G. Overall Attitude 1. Studying at an X university would be____.. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Foolish Useless Worthless Definitely should. Wise Useful Valuable Definitely should not 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bad Useless Unfavourable. Good Useful Favourable. Foolish H. Intention 1. It is ________ that I will study at an X education institution.. 立. 5 Likely Certain Possible. 政治大. ‧ 國. y. sit. PHD. n. er. io. al. hengchi Un. I plan to start my overseas study in _________. C 0-6 months. 4. ‧. Nat. Masters. 3. Unlikely Uncertain Impossible. In X, I plan to study_______. (please select one) Bachelors. 2. 學. Background Questions. Wise 1. 6-12 months. 12-18 months. iv. Language. Vocational. 18 months +. My study in X will be primarily funded by ________. Myself. Parents. Scholarship. Other:. 24-26. 27-30. Gender Male Age <19. Female 20-23. 31+. Email: _______________________________________________________________________ (Thank you for completing my survey, for the chance to win 1 of 5 movie ticket vouchers please write your email here, this is non-compulsory). 43. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.IB.031.2018.F06.

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