世界各國中醫教育制度之比較;Comparison of Chinese Medicine Education in Different Countries

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(1)中國醫藥大學中國醫學研究所碩士論文編號：GICMS-347. 指導教授：蘇奕彰教授共同指導：林睿珊助理教授. 論文題目. 世界各國中醫教育制度之比較 Comparison of Chinese Medicine Education in Different Countries. 研究生：馬培德 (Peter Karl Mayer). 中華民國九十八年六月三十日.

(2) Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................ 1 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 2. Literature discussion......................................................................................... 2 3. Material and Methods ....................................................................................... 6 3.1 Research about CM-Education in Taiwan R.O.C .................................... 8 3.2 Research about CM-Education in P.R. China.......................................... 8 3.3 Research about CM-Education in Korea ............................................... 10 3.4 Research about CM-Education in Japan ............................................... 10 3.5 Research about CM-Education in Australia ........................................... 11 3.6 Research about CM-Education in USA ................................................. 11 3.7 Research about CM-Education in Europe ............................................. 11 4. Results............................................................................................................ 12 4.1 Taiwan R.O.C ........................................................................................ 13 4.1.1 China Medical University (CMU) ..................................................... 13 4.1.1.1 CMU School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine............ 13 4.1.1.2 CMU School of Chinese Medicine ............................................ 17 4.1.2 Chang Gung University School of Chinese Medicine...................... 25 4.2 PR China ............................................................................................... 29 4.2.1 Beijing University of TCM................................................................ 29 4.2.2 Shanghai University of TCM ........................................................... 33 4.2.3 Nanjing University of TCM .............................................................. 39 4.2.4 Guangzhou University of TCM ........................................................ 44 4.2.5 Hong Kong ...................................................................................... 48 4.2.5.1 Hong Kong Baptist University................................................... 48 4.2.5.2 Hong Kong University............................................................... 51 4.2.5.3 Chinese University Hong Kong................................................. 53 4.3 Korea ..................................................................................................... 55 4.3.1 Kyung Hee University College of Oriental Medicine........................ 55 4.3.2 Pusan Graduate School of Oriental Medicine ................................. 58 4.4 Japan..................................................................................................... 61 4.4.1 Meiji University of Integrative Medicine ........................................... 61 4.5 Australia................................................................................................. 63. iv.

(3) 4.5.1 RMIT University .............................................................................. 64 4.6 USA ....................................................................................................... 65 4.6.1 Pacific College of Oriental Medicine ............................................... 66 4.7 Europe ................................................................................................... 68 4.8 Comparison of different categories........................................................ 69 4.8.1 Entry requirements, degree and licensing exam ............................. 69 4.8.2 Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies............................................ 69 4.8.3 Chinese Medicine Classical Texts .................................................. 70 4.8.4 Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies .................................................. 71 4.8.5 Chinese Medicine Internship........................................................... 71 4.8.6 Western Medicine ........................................................................... 72 4.8.7 Research......................................................................................... 72 4.8.8 Non Medical Courses...................................................................... 73 5. Discussion ...................................................................................................... 75 6. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 83 Reference ........................................................................................................... 85 摘要 .................................................................................................................... 89 Appendix............................................................................................................. 90 Guideline for basic requirements of an undergraduate program for global TCM education (draft).................................................................................. 90 China Medical University 5 year curriculum................................................. 93 China Medical University 7 year curriculum................................................. 97 China Medical University 8 year curriculum............................................... 105 Shanghai University of TCM 5 year curriculum.......................................... 114 Shanghai University of TCM 7 year curriculum.......................................... 119 Beijing University of TCM 5 year curriculum .............................................. 125 Beijing University of TCM 7 year curriculum .............................................. 126 Nanjing University of TCM 5 year curriculum............................................. 127 Nanjing University of TCM 7 year curriculum............................................. 129 Baptist University CM curriculum............................................................... 131 Guangzhou University of TCM 5 year curriculum ...................................... 136 Guangzhou University of TCM 7 year curriculum ...................................... 140 Chinese University HK CM curriculum....................................................... 142. v.

(4) HK University CM curriculum..................................................................... 147 Kyung Hee University Oriental Medicine curriculum.................................. 149 Pusan University Oriental Medicine curriculum ......................................... 163 Meiji University curriculum ......................................................................... 166 Pacific College of Oriental Medicine curriculum......................................... 169 RMIT University CM curriculum ................................................................. 170. vi.

(5) List of Tables Table 1: WHO Guidelines on Basic Training in Acupuncture* .............................. 5 Table 2: Universities and countries included in this research ............................. 12 Table 3: China Medical University five year curriculum ...................................... 14 Table 4: China Medical University seven year curriculum .................................. 17 Table 5: China Medical University eight year curriculum .................................... 21 Table 6: Chang Gung University eight year curriculum....................................... 25 Table 7: Beijing University of TCM five year curriculum...................................... 30 Table 8: Beijing University of TCM seven year curriculum.................................. 32 Table 9: Shanghai University of TCM five year curriculum ................................. 34 Table 10: Shanghai University of TCM seven year curriculum ........................... 37 Table 11: Nanjing University of TCM five year curriculum .................................. 40 Table 12: Nanjing University of TCM seven year curriculum .............................. 42 Table 13: Guangzhou University of TCM five year curriculum............................ 44 Table 14: Guangzhou University of TCM seven year curriculum ........................ 46 Table 15: Baptist University HK five year curriculum .......................................... 49 Table 16: Hong Kong University five year curriculum ......................................... 52 Table 17: Chinese University HK five year curriculum ........................................ 54 Table 18: Kyung Hee University six year curriculum........................................... 56 Table 19: Pusan Graduate School of Oriental Medicine ..................................... 59 Table 20: Meiji University four year curriculum ................................................... 61 Table 21: RMIT University five year curriculum .................................................. 64 Table 22: Pacific College of Oriental Medicine four year curriculum................... 66 Table 23: Comparison of study duration, degree and didactic hours of different categories ........................................................................................... 74. vii.

(6) Abbreviations CM: Chinese Medicine CMU: China Medical University HKU: Hong Kong University Lab: Laboratory PR: Peoples Republic RMIT: Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology ROC: Republic of China (Taiwan) TCM: Traditional Chinese Medicine UK: United Kingdom WHO: World Health Organisation WM: Western Medicine. viii.

(7) Comparison of Chinese Medicine Education in Different Countries Peter Mayer, Major Advisor: Yi-chang, Su Graduate Institute of Chinese Medical Science, China Medical University. Abstract As Chinese Medicine (CM) is getting more and more popular all over the world, many universities and schools teaching CM developed their own curricula and educational system. However, until now there is no worldwide accepted guideline for the education of CM. In order to evaluate the current situation of CM education worldwide, about 20 curricula of top institutions with a regular CM degree program were compared in relation to duration of study, courses, didactic hours, entry examination and degree. It was also evaluated whether a licensing exam is needed to work as a CM physician. The courses were classified into different categories like CM Foundation Studies, CM Classical Texts, CM Clinical Studies, Western Medicine (WM), other courses and Internship. The didactic hours for all of the categories were calculated and compared. The duration of study differed from four to eight years before graduating with a bachelor or master degree. Most of the universities offer a 5-year undergraduate CM program. The China Medical University as well as Chang Gung University in Taiwan are the only universities worldwide offering an 8-year Chinese-western medicine double degree. Besides a 5-year bachelor degree, universities in PR China also offer a 7-year master degree CM curriculum. Within the selected universities, the amount of CM didactic hours differed from around 1200 to 3000 hours. The amount of WM hours varied between 500 to 4800 hours. Great differences could be found within the universities regarding the internship duration. Compared with the 13-week CM internship at RMIT University in Australia and a 52-week internship at Nanjing University of TCM, China Medical University is the only university, which, beside a 48-week WM internship in the double degree program, also offers a 32-week WM clerkship in the five and seven year CM curriculum. The differences and similarities shown in this research can provide a basic platform for the discussion of CM education, recognition and improvement worldwide.. 1.

(8) 1. Introduction Chinese Medicine is getting more and more popular all over the world. According to the official web portal of China’s government, Chinese Medicine has been accepted in over 120 countries1. Many countries opened up schools on Chinese Medicine and signed medical agreements with China on cooperation in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Recent study of Kaiser (2007) showed that the TCM market has been developing rapidly since 1990. The total TCM market in China will rise to €18.8 billion in 20152. Acupuncture is the best known discipline of Chinese Medicine, worldwide. The health insurances in a lot of countries cover acupuncture treatment and even Chinese herbal prescriptions. Furthermore, health insurances in Germany initiated randomised controlled trials on acupuncture in 20003. Many clinical trials worldwide suggest that acupuncture is clinically effective for a wide range of conditions. There are long lists of acupuncture indications provided by many different organisations. However, acupuncture is only one part of Chinese Medicine beside herbs, qigong, tuina and nutrition. Chinese Medicine in China as well as in other countries has many faces. There are many forms of Chinese Medicine existing in Western Countries. Most of the countries developed a hybridisation of Chinese Medicine. In Germany for example there are many different forms of Biomedicine-Chinese Medicine especially Biomedicineacupuncture hybridisations4. Many medical doctors combine acupuncture with homeopathy, bio resonance or use local herbs. Chinese Medicine in Germany is quite different from Chinese Medicine in China or other Western countries. In immigration countries like the United Kingdom or USA, Chinese Medicine is wide spread. There are many Chinese Medicine Clinics and practitioners in both countries. However, the acupuncture profession in the United Kingdom has not been regulated statutorily yet and might be regulated in 20105. In the USA the acupuncture profession is regulated by different state laws6. Acupuncture in the USA became famous after President Nixon’s historic visit to China in 1971, when reporter James Reston wrote about his experience with acupuncture after undergoing an emergency appendectomy in China. He wrote that doctors ameliorated his pain by inserting fine needles into his body7. A few. 1.

(9) years later the first acupuncture school was established in the USA. Until now more than 60 schools teaching Chinese Medicine were established in the USA. As Chinese Medicine is expanding worldwide, Chinese Medicine education will become a more and more important issue. This research has the aim to evaluate the current situation of Chinese Medicine education in worldwide top Chinese Medicine institutes. Therefore, curricula of schools with a regular Chinese medicine degree program were compared in regard of subjects, credits, didactic hours as well as entry requirements and academic degree. Furthermore it was explored whether a licensing exam is needed in order to work as a Chinese Medicine physician.. 2. Literature discussion Chinese Medicine has been handed down from ancient time to now. In China there were basically two main ways of passing down the knowledge to the students. On one hand there was a kind of heredity education in which knowledge was passed from father to children or a succession of teaching from master to his disciples. On the other hand there was a kind of apprenticeship education, where Chinese Medicine was taught in medical schools8. This kind of Chinese Medicine education always played an important role in Chinese Medicine history. Many famous Medical Doctors were cultivated by being taught by their fathers or masters. Until now this kind of education is still common in some Asiatic countries but it plays a less important role than in ancient time. In Taiwan the last special exam of Chinese Medicine for people who did not study CM at a university will be hold in 20119. After 2011 only people with a regular university Chinese Medicine degree are allowed to take the National CM Licensing exam. Already in the Tang Dynasty (618-906) the government set up an official Chinese Medicine school called the “Tai Yi Shu”〈「太醫署」〉. The foundation of this school was made before the Sui Dynasty (581-618) but at this time it was still incomplete and not fully developed yet10. “Tai Yi Shu” 〈「太醫署」〉 officially set up in 624 can be regarded as the first official medical school in China. It consisted of four different parts: Administration, Education, Medical Treatment. 2.

(10) and Pharmacy. “Tai Yi Shu”〈「太醫署」〉had about four different medical departments. There was a medical department consisting of five different disciplines, an acupuncture department, a department of massage which also included treatment of fracture and wounds and a department of incantation. All of the students had to study classical texts e.g. “Huangdi`s Internal Classic”〈《黃帝內經》〉, “Shennong`s Classic of Materia Medica”〈《神農本草經》〉, “Pulse Classic”〈《脈經》〉 and “A-B Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion”〈《針灸甲乙經》〉to build up a theoretical foundation11. In the Song Dynasty (960-1179) the Chinese government set up “Tai Yi Ju” 〈「太醫局」〉which was a further development of “Tai Yi Shu” 〈「太醫署」〉 of the Tang dynasty11. The education was more structured, new medical equipment like the bronze human acupuncture figure were used for training and new books were added in the curriculum. During the Song Dynasty medical schools were set up in different parts of China. In the following dynasties there were further developments in the education of Chinese Medicine. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) there was a big effort in the development of acupuncture, while in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) acupuncture was even abolished from the medical curriculum in 182210. In 1908 during the end of Qing Dynasty officials developed new curricula to cultivate a new type of Chinese Western Medicine doctors. There was a five year curriculum in which primary traditional Chinese Medicine subjects were taught including some basic subjects of Western Medicine. The second curriculum was an eight year curriculum in which primary Western Medicine subjects were taught including some Chinese Medicine theory and practise11. In 1911 the imperial China collapsed and the Republic of China was established. The move towards Western Medicine led to struggle between Chinese and Western Medicine. The new government was not interested in Chinese Medicine and in 1914 as well 1929 tries were made to abolish CM, which led to massive protest. As a result, the Chinese government decided to establish the Central Chinese Medicine Institute “Zhong Yang Guo Yi Guan” 〈「中央國醫館」〉in 1930, with the aim to reorder and research CM with new scientific methods and further develop CM education41.. 3.

(11) After the takeover of mainland China in 1949 the communist government started setting up new Chinese Medicine schools around the country. In 1956 four Colleges of Chinese Medicine were created in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Chengdu followed by Nanjing in 195810. From this period the schools of Chinese Medicine started using simplified and unified teaching materials. Chinese Medicine was reformed and a new kind of modern practise of Chinese Medicine was created. The term TCM, which is often used in the West, refers to a post-1949 official, state-sanctioned practise of Chinese Medicine in China12. In R.O.C. Taiwan in 1958 the China Medical College was established as the first College of Chinese Medicine in Taiwan13. There has always been a strong exchange of Chinese Medicinal knowledge with other countries particularly with neighbouring countries like Japan or Korea14. Already in the sixth century, Korea and Japan assimilated Chinese acupuncture and herbs into their medical systems. There were even physicians practising Chinese Medicine in Europe. There are publications of Rhyne (1683) and Kaempfer (1712) who reported on acupuncture techniques and physicians like Floyer (1707) who wrote on Chinese pulse diagnostics. However, in the beginning of the 19th century Chinese Medicine disappeared from clinical practise in Europe4. In the last century Chinese Medicine started expanding worldwide. After the Second World War there was a spread of acupuncture to the West. Influenced by the forth International Acupuncture Congress in Paris, many acupuncture organisations were established. The visit of US President Nixon to China in 1971 was another great impulse for the expansion of Chinese Medicine to Western countries15. After the reunification of Hong Kong with mainland China the new government started regulating the Chinese Medicine profession in Hong Kong and established three Schools of Chinese Medicine16. In 1999 the World Health Organisation established a guideline on basic training and safety in acupuncture. The guideline points out that acupuncturist without a medical background should at least undergo 2500 hours of training including 500 hours of Western Medicine. A full course training for qualified physicians should take about 1500 hours of acupuncture theory and practise and a limited training for qualified physicians should at least take 200 hours of acupuncture17 (see table1). 4.

(12) However, the guideline developed by the WHO is only a special guideline for the training of acupuncture. Until now the WHO did not establish a guideline for the basic education of Chinese Medicine. At the end of 2008 a conference of TCM was held at Tianjin University with the aim to create a guideline for basic requirements of an undergraduate program for global TCM education. Chinese Media reported that the conference was successful and basic guidelines for global TCM education were created18. The results of the conference could not be found until now. However the draft of the guideline for global TCM education was obtained (see appendix). China only used its own system of TCM education to develop a guideline without evaluating and analyzing the current worldwide situation of CM education.. Table 1: WHO Guidelines on Basic Training in Acupuncture*. 1. State examination in acupuncture and modern Western medicine (at. appropriate level). * table was taken from WHO Guidelines on Basic Training and Safety in Acupuncture (1999). 5.

(13) 3. Material and Methods This research started with a paper review. Articles with topics about Chinese Medicine education were collected and analysed. Afterwards experts, like the Vice President of CMU as well as the Director of the CMU Graduate Institute of Chinese Medical Science were consulted to discuss these collected articles in consideration of the research topic. This research has the aim to compare a high standard (university) Chinese Medicine education in different countries. Thus, only top universities or schools with a regular degree program were included. In this research the term Chinese Medicine can also be understood as Oriental Medicine. Therefore, countries using the term Oriental Medicine instead of Chinese Medicine were included as well. The first aim was to understand the whole situation of Chinese Medicine education in the respective countries. On the one hand there were countries which have a long tradition of Chinese Medicine and therefore have established a university degree CM education. On the other hand there were countries which do not have a long CM tradition but have already established a university CM education, too. After getting an understanding of the CM educational situation in the country, top institutions were chosen to be part of this research. For the schools or universities there were the following inclusion criteria:. 1. There is a regular Chinese Medicine degree program at the university. 2. The degree or final exam allows the person to work as a physician of Chinese Medicine in the respective country.. Different universities from different countries were contacted and information which was required for this research was collected. To analyse and compare the universities the following information was needed: 1. Curricula with all of the subjects, credits and didactic hours 2. Entry requirements for the study of CM 3. Academic degree after finishing the study 4. Whether a licensing exam is needed in order to work as a Chinese Medicine physician. 6.

(14) If the university had different curricula, only those for local students with a specialisation in Chinese Medicine were chosen. Programs which have a specialisation in e.g. Chinese Traumatology etc were excluded. The curricula were analysed from different perspectives and several categories were created. After finishing categorisation, the curricula were compared according to subjects, credits, teaching hours and distinctiveness. At first Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine courses were separated. The Chinese Medicine courses were categorised into Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies, Chinese Medicine Classical Texts and Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies. Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies should have the aim to build up a basic theoretical foundation of CM including for example Introduction of Chinese Medicine, History of Medicine, Archaic Chinese Medical Literature, Herbal Pharmacy of Chinese Medicine and Prescriptions of Chinese Medicine etc. Courses which contained Classical Chinese text books were categorised as Chinese Medicine Classical Texts e.g.: “Huangdi`s Internal Classic” (Huang Di Nei Jing《黃帝內經》), “Treatise on Cold Damage Diseases” (Shang Han Lun 《傷寒論》), “Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber” (Jin Gui Yao Lue 《金匱要略》 ) etc. Courses with a clinical content were categorised as Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies like Diagnostics of Chinese Medicine, Chinese Internal Medicine, Acupuncture etc. Western Medicine Courses were categorised in one category containing courses which build up a preclinical and clinical knowledge. Courses with research content have been separated and put in an extra category as well as medicine associated courses, like History of Medicine, Medical Ethics, Medical English etc. Courses which have no medical content were categorised as others. Electives, which do not belong to a special field and could therefore not be categorised were put in the Elective Category. In order to achieve a better comparability, electives which belonged to a special field were categorised in the related category, e.g. if a student can select 8 credits from a Classical Chinese text category, these credits were categorised as Classical Chinese texts. The internship was listed in a separate category. Curricula which were provided in English or Chinese were not translated. Some universities provided bilingual curricula. However, same courses. 7.

(15) sometimes were translated differently, which might lead to confusion. Curricula which used other languages were translated into English. The original curricula can be found in the appendix.. 3.1 Research about CM-Education in Taiwan R.O.C In Taiwan two universities were found which have a Chinese Medicine program. The first university is the China Medical University (CMU) in Taichung. The second university is the Chang Gung University in Taoyuan. For this research the 5, 7 and 8 years Chinese Medicine curricula were investigated. After contacting the School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine the office pointed out that the curriculum and other information needed can be found on the internet. The Curriculum and other information were taken from the following website: http://www2.cmu.edu.tw/~cmed/spbcm/. The internet curriculum contained all the subjects, credits and didactic hours. The School of Chinese Medicine also posted the current curricula on the internet but didactic hours couldn’t be found. The Office explained that one credit of theory lesson is equivalent to 18 hours/semester which means 1credit =1 hour/per week. Every Semester has 18 weeks. 1 lab credit equals 36hours/semester and 1 clinical credit is equal to 40hours/semester. The curriculum. was. found. on. the. following. website:. http://www2.cmu.edu.tw/~cmed/chimed/news.php. Further questions have been discussed with the responsible person at the office. The College of Medicine at Chang Gung University has an 8 year Chinese Medicine curriculum which has been investigated in this research. The curriculum was published on the following website: http://www.cgu.edu.tw/CM/., but didactic hours were not listed on the internet. To calculate the hours for every subject the same method was used as for China Medical University (see above).. 3.2 Research about CM-Education in P.R. China In the P.R. China there are seven Chinese Medicine universities and about 25 Chinese Medicine colleges19. Within those, four universities have a leading role in the Chinese Medicine education: Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing and Guangzhou. After the reunification, Hong Kong also established Chinese Medicine schools at 8.

(16) three different universities. All of the universities were contacted via e-mail. According to the criteria above five and seven years curricula from different universities in P.R. China were selected for this research. Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine posted all of their curricula,. including. credits. and. didactic. hours. on. their. homepage:. http://www.shutcm.com/shutcm/jwc/bzkjy/jxjh/index.shtml The curricula of the Nanjing University of TCM containing credits and didactic hours. were. found. on. the. following. homepage:. http://jwc.njutcm.edu.cn/info/upload/1155430872634.rar The Curricula of the Beijing University of TCM were taken from the following book: Study for development of Curriculum and entrance examination for School of Oriental Medicine (2007). In Hong Kong there are three universities which have a School of Chinese Medicine: Baptist University, Chinese University and Hong Kong University. All of these universities have a five year undergraduate Chinese Medicine program. The information provided on the homepage were not enough, therefore the universities were contacted via e-mail. The three universities sent curricula and information needed for this research by e-mail or fax. The curricula which were sent, however, did not include the didactic hours for every subject. Therefore, information how to calculate the didactic hours were provided by every university. At Baptist University one credit is equal to one theory hour or three lab hours per week. One Semester has 14 weeks, which means one credit equals 14 theory hours or 42 lab (or clinical) hours/semester. One internship credit is equal to 40 hours/week. Chinese University basically uses the same system as Baptist University. At Hong Kong University 1 credit is equal to 8 hours / per week. There is not distinction between theory and lab credits.. 9.

(17) 3.3 Research about CM-Education in Korea There are more than 10 universities in Korea which have a Chinese Medicine program20. Two universities were chosen to be included in this research. The College of Oriental Medicine at the Kyung Hee University, which has a six year undergraduate program, is known to be one of the best institutions for Chinese Medicine in Korea. The university was approached and the curriculum was sent by e-mail. As the curriculum was written in Korean language the interpretation and translation of it was done with the help of a Korean student at the China Medical University.. The Graduate School of Oriental Medicine at the Pusan University is a new institution teaching Chinese Medicine and is supposed to be Korea’s only school which has a 4 years postgraduate Chinese Medicine program. The translated curriculum was available at the school office of the Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine at China Medical University.. 3.4 Research about CM-Education in Japan In Japan all of the schools teaching CM are actually acupuncture schools. The Meiji University of Integrative Medicine is supposed to have a leading role among the acupuncture schools in Japan. The school was contacted via e-mail and the curriculum was mailed. According to information provided by the university, didactic hours were calculated. For Courses regarded as basic educational classes one credit equals 15 hours/semester. One credit of Internship is equivalent to 45 hours. Other subjects were calculated with one credit equals 30 hours. As the delivered curriculum was written in Japanese it had to be translated into English with the help of a Japanese student at CMU.. 10.

(18) 3.5 Research about CM-Education in Australia In Australia there are three public and two private universities which have a Chinese Medicine program. The Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT), however, is the only university with a five years undergraduate program, which is supposed to be equivalent to Asian Chinese Medicine universities21. The RMIT University was contacted via e-mail and the curriculum and didactic hours were sent.. 3.6 Research about CM-Education in USA In the USA there are about 60 Schools of Chinese Medicine with an accredited four years postgraduate Chinese Medicine program22. The Pacific College of Oriental Medicine, which is known to be one of the best institutions for CM education in the USA, was contacted via internet. The curriculum was found on the following homepage: http://www.pacificcollege.edu. A list with the didactic hours for every subject was sent by e-mail.. 3.7 Research about CM-Education in Europe In Europe only one school was found, which has a regular Chinese Medicine degree program. Middelsex University in the UK offers an accredited four year TCM bachelor degree program. Unfortenately it was not possible to receive the TCM curriculum from Middelsex University. Therefore it is not contained in this research.. 11.

(19) 4. Results According to the inclusion criteria (Material and Methods) and the cooperation of the universities, about 20 curricula from 14 universities in different countries were included in this research. The included universities and countries are listed in table 2. All of the curricula from these universities were analysed and described in detail.. Table 2: Universities and countries included in this research. Country. University China Medical University. ROC Taiwan Chang Gung University Beijing University of TCM Shanghai University of TCM PR China Nanjing University of TCM Guangzhou University of TCM Baptist University PR China (Hong Kong). Hong Kong University Chinese University Hong Kong Kyung Hee University. Korea Pusan University Japan. Meiji University. Australia. RMIT University. USA. Pacific College of Oriental Medicine. 12.

(20) 4.1 Taiwan R.O.C In Taiwan two universities were found which provide a Chinese Medicine program. The first university is the China Medical University in Taichung. The second university is the Chang Gung University in Taoyuan. The curricula from both universities were analysed.. 4.1.1 China Medical University (CMU) The China Medical University established in 1958 is the older of both Chinese Medicine institutions. It is divided into several different departments. The CMU College of Chinese Medicine is one of them. The College of Chinese Medicine itself is subdivided into seven different related departments. According to the inclusion criteria three different programs were chosen to be a part of this research: the five year Chinese Medicine program of the School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine and the seven and eight year program from the School of Chinese Medicine.. 4.1.1.1 CMU School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine The School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine provides a five year Bachelor degree program. Students entering this program have to pass an entry exam at the university. As this program is a Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine degree program, only students which already have a Bachelor degree are allowed to enrol. After completion of their study at the university, students have to take a National Taiwan Chinese Medicine Licensing Exam in order to work as an eligible Chinese Medicine Doctor. The five year curriculum is well structured. credits and teaching hours are clearly described. The first three years of the curriculum are theoretical lectures. In the forth year the student has to take a clerkship in Western Medicine and in the fifth year an internship in Chinese Medicine. Altogether the students have to take at least 232 credits. According to the criteria described earlier (see Material and Methods) the curricula were divided into different parts and analysed. The results of this analysation are shown in table 3.. 13.

(21) Table 3: China Medical University five year curriculum. China Medical University (5 years). Credits Hours. Chinese Medicine. 68. 1242. Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies 中醫學導論 Introduction of Chinese Medicine 中國醫學史 History of Chinese Medicine 中醫文獻學 Literatures of Chinese Medicine 中醫藥物學(一)Herbal Pharmacy of Chinese Medicine (I) 中醫藥物學(二)Herbal Pharmacy ofChinese Medicine(II) 中醫藥物學(三)Herbal Pharmacy ofChinese Medicine(III) 中醫生理學 Physiology ofChinese Medicine 中醫環境醫學 Traditional Chinese Environmental Medicine 中醫病理學 Pathology ofChinese Medicine 中醫養生學 Health Promotion of Chinese Medicine 中藥炮製及藥材學 Processing and Identification of Chinese Herb 中醫方劑學 Prescriptions of Chinese Medicine 中醫方劑學實驗 Prescriptions Lab. of Chinese Medicine. 30 2 2 2 2 2 2 3. 558 36 36 36 36 36 36 54. 2. 36. 3 2. 54 36. 2. 36. 5 1. 90 36. Chinese Medicine Classical Texts 傷寒學 Theory of Shang-Han 溫病學 Wen-Bing (Classic EpidemicFebrile Diseases). 7 4 3. 126 72 54. Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies 中醫診斷學 Clinical Diagnosis of Chinese Medicine 中醫證治學 Symptoms & Treatment of Chinese Medicine 針灸科學(一) Acupuncture (I) 針灸科學(二)Acupuncture (II) 中醫內科學 Traditional Chinese Internal Medicine 中醫外科學 Surgery of Chinese Medicine 中醫傷科學 Traumatology of Chinese Medicine 中醫婦產科學 Gynecology & Obstetrics of Chinese Medicine 中醫兒科學 Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine 中醫眼耳鼻喉科學 Ophthalmology & Otolaryngology of Chinese Medicine. 31 4. 558 72. 5. 90. 3 3 5 2 3. 54 54 90 36 54. 3. 54. 2. 36. 1. 18. 58. 1116. 1 3 2. 18 54 72. Western Medicine 醫學導論 Introduction of Medicine 大體解剖學 Gross Anatomy 大體解剖學實習 Gross Anatomy Lab.. 14.

(22) Table 3 continued 組織學 Histology 生理學 Physiology 生理學實驗 Physiology Lab 微生物及免疫學 Microbiology & Immunology 病理學 Pathology 藥理學 Pharmacology 藥理學實驗 Pharmacology Lab 臨床診斷學 Physical Diagnosis 實驗診斷學 Laboratory Medicine 影像診斷學 Image Diagnosis 消化內科學 Gastroenterology 循環內科學 Cardiology 胸腔內科學 Chest Medicine 神經學 Neurology 內分泌新陳代謝學 Endocrinology & Metabolism 腎泌尿科學 Nephrourology 風濕免疫過敏學 Rheumatology Immunology Allergy 血液腫瘤病學 Hematology & Oncology 外科學概論 Introduction of Surgery 骨科學 Osteology 復健醫學 Rehabilitation Medicine 皮膚科學 Dermatology 急症醫學 Emergency Medicine 小兒科學概論 Introduction of Pediatrics 婦產科學概論 Introduction of Gynecology & Obstetrics 內科學概論 Introduction of Internal Medicine 感染症學 Infectious Diseases. Medicine associated subjects 醫學史 History of Medicine 醫學生涯 Medical Professions 生命價值 The Value of Life 醫院管理與法規 Hospital Management & Enactment 社會文化與醫療 Social Culture & Health Care 醫學倫理學 Medical Ethics 公共衛生學 Public Health 醫學新知 Medical News. Research 流行病及生物統計學 Epidemiology & Biostatistics 醫學研究方法 Methodology of Medical Research. 15. 2 4 1 4 4 4 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1. 36 72 36 72 72 72 36 36 18 18 36 36 36 36 18 18 36 18 36 36 36 18 18 36 36 36 18. 15. 270. 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2. 36 36 36 18 36 36 36 36. 4. 72. 2 2. 36 36.

(23) Table 3 continued. Electives. 10. 180. Clinical Internship. 77. 77weeks. 32 45. 32w 45w. 西醫見習 Clerkship of Clinical Medicine 中醫臨床實習 Bedside Internship of Chinese Medicine. Altogether. 232. At China Medical University no matter if the students are enrolled in the five year, seven year or eight years CM program, the Chinese Medicine lectures are all the same and have the same amount of didactic hours. Students have to take about 1242 hours of Chinese Medicine courses. The Chinese Medicine lectures were divided into 558 hours of Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies, 126 hours of Chinese Medicine Classical Texts and 558 hours of Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies. As can be seen in table 3 beside the usual courses like Introduction to CM, History of CM, Herbal Pharmacy of CM and Prescriptology, Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies also include new courses like Physiology of CM, Pathology of CM and Traditional Chinese Environmental Medicine. These three courses - altogether 144 hours – are rooted in the classical texts and are a further development of e.g. “Huangdi`s Internal Classic” (Huang Di Nei Jing《黃帝內經》) and “Theory of Different Chinese Medicine Schools” (Zhong Yi Ge Jia Xue Shuo《中醫各家學說》) in order to make classical Chinese Medicine theory more plausible and practical for the clinical usage. Other classical texts e.g. the “Theory of Shang Han” 〈《傷寒學》〉 and “Classic Epidemic Febrile Diseases” (Wen Bing Xue《溫病學》) however, were included in the category of Chinese Medicine Classical Texts. The category CM Clinical Studies contains several usual clinical subjects. Beside these subjects, there is also the course Symptoms & Treatment of Chinese Medicine. This course also roots in classical CM texts like “Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber” (Jin Gui Yao Lue《金匱要略》) to make the Chinese Medicine Clinical thinking and treatment more useful for the clinical practise. There is a big percentage of Western Medicine lectures in the curriculum including many clinical courses. A student has to take about 1116 hours of. 16.

(24) Western Medicine. The curriculum includes many preclinical as well as clinical Western Medicine subjects. The curriculum also includes subjects, like Epidemiology & Biostatistics and Methodology of Medical Research in order to give students a basic understanding of medical research. The five year program contains an altogether 77 weeks clerk and internship. In the forth year a student has to take a 32 weeks clerkship in Western Medicine. In the fifth and last year there is a 45 weeks internship of Chinese Medicine (table 3).. 4.1.1.2 CMU School of Chinese Medicine The School of Chinese Medicine provides a seven and eight year Bachelor degree program. Students entering these programs have to take the Taiwanese Joint College Entrance Exam or can directly apply at the university and pass the university entry examination. Both programs are undergraduate programs, therefore, High School students who fulfil the requirements can apply. The seven year program is a single degree Chinese Medicine program. After graduating from university students have to take a National Taiwan Chinese Medicine Licensing Exam to work as an eligible Chinese Medicine Doctor. The eight year program is a real double degree program. After eight years students first have to take the National Taiwan Chinese Medicine Licensing Exam and can then also take the National Taiwan Western Medicine Licensing Exam in order to work as a Medical Doctor. Most of the double degree students take both exams and have two licenses. Students enrolled in the seven year Chinese Medicine program have to take about 285 credits. The result of the analysation of the curriculum can be seen in table 4.. Table 4: China Medical University seven year curriculum. China Medical University (7 years) Chinese Medicine Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies 中醫學導論 Introduction of Chinese Medicine 中國醫學史 History of Chinese Medicine 中醫文獻學 Literatures of Chinese Medicine. 17. Credits Hours 68. 1242. 30 2 2 2. 558 36 36 36.

(25) Table 4 continued 中醫藥物學(一)Herbal Pharmacy of Chinese Medicine (I) 中醫藥物學(二)Herbal Pharmacy ofChinese Medicine(II) 中醫藥物學(三)Herbal Pharmacy ofChinese Medicine(III) 中醫生理學 Physiology ofChinese Medicine 中醫環境醫學 Traditional Chinese Environmental Medicine 中醫病理學 Pathology ofChinese Medicine 中醫養生學 Health Promotion of Chinese Medicine 中藥炮製及藥材學 Processing and Identification of Chinese Herb 中醫方劑學 Prescriptions of Chinese Medicine 中醫方劑學實驗 Prescriptions Lab. of Chinese Medicine. 2 2 2 3. 36 36 36 54. 2. 36. 3 2. 54 36. 2. 36. 5 1. 90 36. Chinese Medicine Classical Texts 傷寒學 Theory of Shang-Han 溫病學 Wen-Bing (Classic EpidemicFebrile Diseases). 7 4 3. 126 72 54. Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies 中醫診斷學 Clinical Diagnosis of Chinese Medicine 中醫證治學 Symptoms & Treatment of Chinese Medicine 針灸科學(一) Acupuncture (I) 針灸科學(二)Acupuncture (II) 中醫內科學 Traditional Chinese Internal Medicine 中醫外科學 Surgery of Chinese Medicine 中醫傷科學 Traumatology of Chinese Medicine 中醫婦產科學 Gynecology & Obstetrics of Chinese Medicine 中醫兒科學 Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine 中醫眼耳鼻喉科學 Ophthalmology &Otolaryngology of Chinese Medicine. 31 4. 558 72. 5. 90. 3 3 5 2 3. 54 54 90 36 54. 3. 54. 2. 36. 1. 18. 84. 1620. 2 2 1 2 1 4 2 1 2 2. 36 36 18 36 18 72 36 18 36 36. Western Medicine 醫用數學 Medical Mathematics 普通化學 General Chemistry 奈米化學 Nanochemistry 醫用物理學 Medical Physics 醫學導論 Introduction to Medicine 自然科學領域選組 Field of Natural Science 普通生物學 General Biology 生物演化及分類 Biological Evolution and Systematics 系統生物學 Systems biology 有機化學 Organic Chemistry. 18.

(26) Table 4 continued 生物化學 Biochemistry 生物化學實驗 Biochemistry Laboratory 分子生物學 Molecular Biology 大體解剖學 Gross Anatomy 大體解剖學實習 Gross Anatomy Lab 組織學 Histology 生理學 Physiology 生理學實驗 Physiology Lab 微生物及免疫學 Immunology& Microbiology 藥理學 Pharmacology 藥理學實驗 Pharmacology Lab 病理學 Pathology 皮膚科學 Dermatology 循環內科學 Cardiology 胸腔內科學 Chest Medicine 感染症學 Infectious Diseases 外科學概論 Introduction to General Surgery 內科學概論 Introduction to Genernal Medicine 臨床診斷學 Physical Diagnosis 消化內科學 Gastroenterology 實驗診斷學 Laboratory Medicine 影像診斷學 Image Diagnosis 腎泌尿科學 Nephrourology 骨科學 Osteology 復健醫學 Rehabilitation Medicine 小兒科學概論 Introduction to Pediatrics 婦產科學概論 Introduction to Obstetrics and Gynecology 內分泌新陳代謝學 Endocrinology and Metabolism 神經學 Neurology 風濕免疫過敏學 Rheumatology immnuology Allergy 血液腫瘤病學 Hematology & Oncology 急症醫學 Emergency Medicine. 4 2 2 3 2 2 4 1 4 4 1 4 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1. 72 72 36 54 72 36 72 36 72 72 36 72 18 36 36 18 36 36 36 36 18 18 18 36 36 36 36 18 36 36 18 18. Medicine associated subjects. 15. 270. 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2. 36 36 18 36 36 36 36 36. 生命價值 The Meaning of life 社會文化與醫療 Social Culture ＆ Health Care 醫院管理與法規 Hospital Management ＆ Enactment 醫學英文 Medical English 醫學倫理學 Medical Ethics 醫學新知 Medical News 醫學史 History of Medicine 公共衛生學 Introduction to Public Health 19.

(27) Table 4 continued. Research 流行病學 Epidemiology 生物統計學 Biostatistics 醫學研究方法 Methodology of Medical Research. Others 英文 English 國文 Chinese 歷史思維選組 General History of China 民主法治選組 Constitution 微積分 Calculus 社會科學領域選組 Field of Social Science 人文及藝術領域 Field of Liberal Arts. Electives Electives 不限領域選組 Unlimited field (Free Choice). Internship 西醫臨床見習 Clerkship 中醫臨床實習 Rotating Internship (Chinese). Altogether. 5. 90. 1 2 2. 18 36 36. 22. 396. 4 4 2 2 2 4 4. 72 72 36 36 36 72 72. 14. 252. 10 4. 180 72. 77. 77weeks. 32 45. 32w 45w. 285. The Chinese Medicine courses are the same as in the five year program with the same amount of hours. The student has to take 1620 hours of Western Medicine which is about 500 hours more than in the five year curriculum. Additionally, more non medical subjects like History of China, Constitution etc are taught. The clerk and internship is the same as in the five year program with 32 weeks of Western Medicine and 45 weeks of Chinese Medicine (table 4).. For the eight year double degree program a student has to take about 364 credits. As it is a Chinese-, Western Medicine double degree program, the curriculum includes a big amount of Western Medicine. A student has to take 4836 hours of Western Medicine plus a 48 weeks Western Medicine internship. This is comparable to international Western Medicine degree standards. The. 20.

(28) Chinese Medicine lectures are exactly the same as in the five and seven year CM program at CMU. The proportion of Western to Chinese Medicine is 4:1. In the seventh and eighth year the student has to do a 48 weeks internship of Western Medicine and a 45 weeks internship of Chinese Medicine. The result of the analysation of the double degree program can bee seen in table 5.. Table 5: China Medical University eight year curriculum. China Medical University (8 years). Credits Hours. Chinese Medicine. 68. 1242. Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies 中醫學導論 Introduction of Chinese Medicine 中國醫學史 History of Chinese Medicine 中醫文獻學 Literatures of Chinese Medicine 中醫藥物學(一)Herbal Pharmacy of Chinese Medicine (I) 中醫藥物學(二)Herbal Pharmacy ofChinese Medicine(II) 中醫藥物學(三)Herbal Pharmacy ofChinese Medicine(III) 中醫生理學 Physiology ofChinese Medicine 中醫環境醫學 Traditional Chinese Environmental Medicine 中醫病理學 Pathology ofChinese Medicine 中醫養生學 Health Promotion of Chinese Medicine 中藥炮製及藥材學 Processing and Identification ofChinese Herb 中醫方劑學 Prescriptions of Chinese Medicine 中醫方劑學實驗 Prescriptions Lab. of Chinese Medicine. 30 2 2 2 2 2 2 3. 558 36 36 36 36 36 36 54. 2. 36. 3 2. 54 36. 2. 36. 5 1. 90 36. Chinese Medicine Classical Texts 傷寒學 Theory of Shang-Han 溫病學 Wen-Bing (Classic EpidemicFebrile Diseases). 7 4 3. 126 72 54. Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies 中醫診斷學 Clinical Diagnosis of Chinese Medicine 中醫證治學 Symptoms & Treatment of Chinese Medicine 針灸科學(一) Acupuncture (I) 針灸科學(二)Acupuncture (II) 中醫內科學 Traditional Chinese Internal Medicine 中醫外科學 Surgery of Chinese Medicine 中醫傷科學 Traumatology of Chinese Medicine 中醫婦產科學 Gynecology & Obstetrics of Chinese Medicine. 31 4. 558 72. 5. 90. 3 3 5 2 3. 54 54 90 36 54. 3. 54. 21.

(29) Table 5 continued 中醫兒科學 Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine 中醫眼耳鼻喉科學 Ophthalmology & Otolaryngology of Chinese Medicine. 2. 36. 1. 18. Western Medicine. 159. 4836. 醫用數學 Medical Mathematics 普通化學 General Chemistry 奈米化學 Nanochemistry 醫用物理學 Medical Physics 自然科學領域選組 Field of Natural Science 醫學導論 Introduction to Medicine 普通生物學 General Biology 生物演化及分類 Biological Evolution and Systematics 有機化學 Organic Chemistry 生物化學 Biochemistry 生物化學實驗 Biochemistry Laboratory 分子生物學 Molecular Biology 系統生物學 Systems biology 大體解剖學 Gross Anatomy 大體解剖學實習 Gross Anatomy lab 組織學 Histology 組織學實驗 Histology Lab 生理學 Physiology 生理學實驗 Physiology＆ Lab 胚胎學 Embryology 神經解剖學 Neuroanatomy 微生物學暨免疫學 Immunology & Microbiology 微生物學暨免疫學實驗 Immunology & Microbiology Lab 寄生蟲學及實驗 Parasitology＆ Lab 藥理學 Pharmacology 藥理學實驗 Pharmacology Lab 病理學 Pathology 病理學實驗 Pathology Lab 法醫學 Forensic Medicine 內科學概論 Introduction to General Medicine 外科學概論 Introduction to General Surgery 臨床診斷學與實習 Clinical Diagnosis and Clerkship 口腔醫學 Introduction to Dentistry 心臟內科及臨床教學 Cardiology & Clinical Clerkship 胸腔內科及臨床教學 Chest Medicine & Clinical Clerkship 血液腫瘤科及臨床教學 Hematology and Oncology & Clinical Clerkship. 2 2 1 2 4 1 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 4 3 2 2 4 1 1 1 5 1 2 4 1 6 2 1 6 3 4 1 2 2. 36 36 18 36 72 18 36 18 36 72 72 36 36 72 108 36 72 72 36 18 18 90 36 72 72 36 108 72 18 108 54 144 18 80 80. 2. 80. 22.

(30) Table 5 continued 感染科及臨床教學 Infectious Diseases & Clinical Clerkship 腎臟科及臨床教學 Nephrology & Clinical Clerkship 消化內科及臨床教學 Gastroenterology & Clinical Clerkship 內科三選二：(各 2 學分) 1.內分泌新陳代謝科及臨床教學 Endocrinology and Metabolism & Clinical Clerkship 2.風濕免疫過敏科及臨床教學 Rheumatology Immunology Allergy & Clinical Clerkship 3.一般內科及臨床教學 General Medicine & Clinical Clerkship 精神科及臨床教學 Psychiatry & Clinical Clerkship 神經內科及臨床教學 Neurology & Clinical Clerkship 一般外科(含外傷科、小兒外科)及臨床教學 General Surgery、Trauma and Pediatric Surgery Clinical Clerkship 胸腔外科及臨床教學 Chest Surgery & Clinical Clerkship 心臟外科及臨床教學 Cardiovascular Surgery & Clinical Clerkship 婦產科及臨床教學 Obstetrics and Gynecology & Clinical Clerkship 小兒科及臨床教學 Pediatrics & Clinical Clerkship 麻醉科及臨床教學 Anesthesiology & Clinical Clerkship 骨科及臨床教學 Orthopedic & Clinical Clerkship 神經外科及臨床教學 Neurolsurgery Surgery & Clinical Clerkship 整型外科及臨床教學 Plastic Surgery & Clinical Clerkship 泌尿科及臨床教學 Urology & Clinical Clerkship 皮膚科及臨床教學 Dermatology & Clinical Clerkship 放射診斷科及臨床教學 Radiology & Clinical Clerkship 放射線治療學 Radiation Therapy 復健科及臨床教學 Rehabilitation Medicine & Clinical Clerkship 眼科及臨床教學 Ophthalmology & Clinical Clerkship 耳鼻喉科及臨床教學 Otolaryngology & Clinical Clerkship 家庭醫學科及臨床教學 Family Medicine & Clinical Clerkship 急診部及臨床教學 Emergency Medicine & Clinical Clerkship 社區醫學 Community Medicine. 23. 2. 80. 2. 80. 2. 80. 4. 160. 4 4. 160 160. 5. 200. 2. 80. 2. 80. 6. 240. 8 2 2. 320 80 80. 2. 80. 2 2 2 2 1. 80 80 80 80 18. 2. 80. 2 2. 80 80. 2. 80. 2. 80. 2. 36.

(31) Table 5 continued 其他科必修 Others Clerkship:(A.B.C.三選一) A.附醫院內核子醫學科、放射治療科、病理科、醫學檢驗科臨床教學，任選 2 科，共 4 週。 B.國內其他教學醫院臨床教學(任選 1~2 科臨床科，4 週) C.國外其他教學醫院臨床教學(任選 1~2 科臨床科，4 週) ※國內、外醫院臨床科別名稱依該醫院科別名稱為主。. 4. 160. Medicine associated subjects. 13. 234. 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2. 36 36 18 36 36 18 18 36. 5. 90. 2 1 2. 36 18 36. 22. 396. 4 4 2 2 2 4 4. 72 72 36 36 36 72 72. 4. 72. 4. 72. 93. 93weeks. 48 45. 48w 45w. 生命關懷 Comprehension and Compassion of Life 社會文化與醫療 Social Culture ＆ Health Care 醫院管理與法規 Hospital Management ＆ Enactment 醫學英文 Medical English 醫學史 History of Medicine 醫學倫理學一 Medical Ethics Ⅰ 醫學倫理學二 Medical Ethics Ⅱ 公共衛生學 Introduction to Public Health. Research 醫學研究方法 Methodology of Medical Research 流行病學 Epidemiology 生物統計學 Biostatistics. Others 英文 English 國文 Chinese 歷史思維選組 General History of China 民主法治選組 Constitution 微積分 Calculus 社會科學領域選組 Field of Social Science 人文及藝術領域選組 Field of Liberal Arts. Electives 不限領域選組 Unlimited field (Free Choice). Internship 西醫臨床實習 Rotating Internship 中醫臨床實習 Rotating Internship (Chinese). Altogether. 364. 24.

(32) 4.1.2 Chang Gung University School of Chinese Medicine The Chang Gung University is located in Taoyuan. It consists of several different Colleges and the College of Medicine is one of them. The School of Chinese Medicine is part of the College of Medicine and provides an eight year double degree program ending with a Bachelor degree. Students entering the university have to take the Taiwanese Joint College Entrance Exam or can directly apply at the university. As this is an undergraduate program, High School students who fulfil the requirements can enrol. After eight years students first have to take the National Taiwan Chinese Medicine Licensing Exam to work as a Chinese Medicine Doctor and can then also take the National Taiwan Western Medicine Exam in order to work as a Medical Doctor. During their studies the students have to take altogether 374 credits. In the seventh and eighth year the students have to do a 48 weeks internship in Western Medicine and then a 45 weeks internship in Chinese Medicine. A student has to take about 81 credits and 1662 hours of Chinese Medicine plus a 45 weeks Chinese Medicine internship. The Chinese Medicine lectures were divided into 540 hours of CM Foundation Studies, 378 hours of Chinese Medicine Classical Texts and 744 hours of CM Clinical Studies. The CM clinical theory lectures are accompanied by many one week short term practices. Beside the usual Chinese Medicine courses, the curriculum also includes a separate course on Meridianology. Additionally, a student has to take about 3942 hours of Western Medicine plus a 48 weeks Western Medicine internship. The Western Medicine program is equivalent to international Western Medicine standards. A detailed analysation of the program can bee seen in table 6.. Table 6: Chang Gung University eight year curriculum. Chang Gung (8 years). Credits Hours. Chinese Medicine. 81. 1662. Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies 中醫基礎理論中藥藥物學中藥炮製學. 27 3 5 2. 540 54 90 36. 25.

(33) Table 6 continued 中藥炮製學實習方劑學方劑學實習中藥藥理學中藥藥理學實驗經絡腧穴學. 1 5 1 3 1 6. 36 90 36 54 36 108. Chinese Medicine Classical Texts 內經難經傷寒論溫病學金匱要略中醫各家學說. 21 4 1 4 4 4 4. 378 72 18 72 72 72 72. Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies 中醫診斷學中醫診斷學實驗中醫內科學中醫內科學實驗中醫傷科學中醫傷科學實驗中醫眼科學中醫耳鼻喉科學中西醫內科學中西醫內科學實驗針灸治療學針灸治療學實驗中醫兒科學中醫兒科學實驗中醫外科學中醫皮膚科學中醫婦科學中醫婦科學實驗. 33 5 1 4 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 3 1. 744 90 36 72 40 36 40 18 18 72 40 36 40 36 40 18 18 54 40. 149. 3942. 4 2 3 1 2. 72 72 54 36 36. Western Medicine 生物學生物學實驗有機化學有機化學實驗物理學. 26.

(34) Table 6 continued 物理學實驗普通化學普化實驗生物化學生物化學實驗大體解剖學大體解剖學實驗神經生物學神經生物學實驗胚胎學組織學組織學實驗影像解剖學遺傳醫學生理學生理學實驗寄生蟲學寄生蟲學實驗病理學病理學實驗微生物學免疫學微生物免疫學實驗藥理學藥理學實驗實驗診斷學實驗診斷學實驗臨床診斷學臨床診斷學見習醫學技巧與醫療相關照護內科學小兒科學影像診斷學神經科學復建科學社區醫學眼科學基礎與臨床醫學系統整合耳鼻喉科學精神醫學皮膚科學. 1 3 1 4 1 4 4 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 6 3 2 2 1 4 1 2 1 2 2 1 8 4 3 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1. 27. 36 54 36 72 18 72 144 36 36 36 36 72 18 36 72 18 36 36 108 108 36 36 36 72 36 36 36 36 72 36 144 72 54 18 18 36 18 108 18 36 18.

(35) Table 6 continued 核醫學婦產科學外科學醫病關係麻醉科學放射治療學法醫學臨床醫學生實習. Medicine associated subjects 人文及社會醫學導論醫療法規概論公共衛生學生死學醫學與生物資訊醫師/病人/社會行為科學醫學倫理學高階醫學英文. Research 生物統計學. Others 微積分入門講座課程基礎核心課程. Electives 全校選修課程領域選修課程. Internship 西醫臨床實習中醫臨床實習. Altogether. 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 36. 18 36 54 18 18 18 18 1440. 17. 324. 2 1 5 1 1 2 2 1 2. 36 36 90 18 18 36 36 18 36. 2. 36. 2. 36. 22. 394. 2 2 18. 36 36 324. 10. 180. 6 4. 108 72. 93. 93weeks. 48 45. 48w 45w. 374. 28.

(36) 4.2 PR China In China there are over 30 colleges and universities of Chinese Medicine. The four universities Beijing-, Shanghai-, Nanjing- and Guangzhou University of TCM can be regarded as the main universities of CM in China and therefore were included in this research. Beside these universities, three schools of Chinese Medicine from Hong Kong were chosen to be a part of this research and were analysed separately. According to the inclusion criteria the five and seven year undergraduate curricula from Beijing-, Shanghai-, Nanjing- and Guangzhou University of TCM were included in this research. Students who want to study Chinese Medicine have to take the National University Exam or if meeting special conditions, can directly pass the entry exam at the universities. After finishing the five year CM program students receive a bachelor degree. The seven year program is a master degree program which includes the bachelor degree. To work as a Chinese Medicine Doctor in P.R. China, the students have to pass a National Chinese Medicine Licensing Exam. 4.2.1 Beijing University of TCM Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine was founded in 195623. It offers many different undergraduate as well as graduate programs. According to the inclusion criteria the five and seven year Chinese Medicine curricula were chosen to be a part of this research. The five year CM program includes 82,5 credits and 1661 hours of Chinese Medicine lectures adding a 40 weeks internship in a CM hospital. The CM Foundation Studies adds up to 369 hours by only including 4 subjects (see table 7). The Chinese Medicine Classical Texts category (360h) includes five standard books. The CM Clinical Studies category - altogether 932 hours – consists of eight different subjects. There are only very basic Western Medicine lectures taught in this program. The total amount of Western Medicine is 675 hours. There is a high amount of non medical lectures like English, political subjects or military training. In the fifth. 29.

(37) year the students have to do a 40 weeks CM internship at a CM hospital. The detailed analysation of the curriculum can be seen in table 7.. Table 7: Beijing University of TCM five year curriculum. Beijing University of TCM (5 years) Credits Hours Chinese Medicine. 82,5. 1661. 20.5 4,5 6 5 5. 369 81 108 90 90. 內經傷寒論金匱要略溫病學中醫各家學說. 20 4 4 4 4 4. 360 72 72 72 72 72. Chinese Medicine Clinical Studies 中醫診斷學中醫內科學針灸學中醫外科學中醫婦科學中醫兒科學中醫急症學集中見習. 42 5,5 9 5,5 4 3,5 3 3,5 8. 932 99 162 99 72 63 54 63 320. 37,5. 675. 4,5 4,5 6 5 3 7,5 7. 81 81 108 90 54 135 126. 1. 18. 1. 18. CM Foundation Studies 中醫基礎理論中藥學方劑學大學語文與醫古文 Chinese Medicine Classical Texts. Western Medicine 人體解剖學生理學生物化學病理學藥理學診斷學基礎理內科學. Medicine associated subjects 醫學倫理學. 30.

(38) Table 7 continued. Others. 59. 864. 2 2,5 3. 36 45 54. 6. 108. 16 8 5,5 4 4 8. 276 138 99 72 36. **. **. Internship 畢業實習. 40. 40weeks. Altogether. 220***. 中國近現代史綱要思想道德修養與法律基礎馬克思主義基本原理毛澤東思想、鄧小平理論和『三個代表』重要思想概論英語（一）,（二）, （三）,（四）體育（一）,（二）,（三）,（四）計算機基礎與應用高等教學軍事課社會實踐活動. Electives 任選課. ** Credits and didactic hours could not be evaluated *** Altogether credits do not include electives The seven year master degree curriculum in clinical Chinese Medicine was chosen for this research. It has a smaller amount of Chinese Medicine lectures than the five year curriculum. The CM Foundation Studies and the Classical CM Texts lectures are exactly the same. There were more clinical lectures added in this curriculum but the total amount of CM Clinical Studies category hours are only about 774 hours, 158 hours less than in the five year curriculum. There is a 46 weeks internship during the 10th an11th semester. Two courses of Western Medicine were added with a total amount of 783 hours Western Medicine lectures. The amount of non medical lecture hours (1044h) is even more than in the five year curriculum. From the 12th semester the students have take a 60 weeks cultivation program including internship, teaching and research. In the end of the seventh year every student has to write a degree thesis. The detailed analysation of this curriculum can be seen in table 8.. 31.

(39) Table 8: Beijing University of TCM seven year curriculum. Beijing University of TCM (7 years) Credits Hours Chinese Medicine. 83.5. 1503. 20.5 4,5 6 5 5. 369 81 108 90 90. CM Classical Texts. 20 4 4 4 4 4. 360 72 72 72 72 72. CM Clinical Studies. 43 5,5 9 5,5 4 3,5 3 3,5 2 2 3 2. 774 99 162 99 72 63 54 63 36 36 54 36. Western Medicine. 43.5. 783. 4,5 3 4,5 6 5 3 7,5 7 3. 81 54 81 108 90 54 135 126 54. 1. 18. 1. 18. CM Foundation Studies 中醫基礎理論中藥學方劑學大學語文與醫古文. 內經傷寒論金匱要略溫病學中醫各家學說. 中醫診斷學中醫內科學針灸學中醫外科學中醫婦科學中醫兒科學中醫急症學中醫皮科學中醫眼科學中醫傷科學推拿學. 人體解剖學醫學生物學生理學生物化學病理學藥理學診斷學基礎理內科學西醫外科學. Medicine associated subjects 醫學倫理學. 32.

(40) Table 8 continued. Others. 73. 1044. 2 2,5 3. 36 45 54. 6. 108. 2 24 8 5,5 4 4 12. 36 420 138 99 72 36. **. **. Internship 畢業實習. 46. 46weeks. 二科定向培及研究. 60. 60w. 中國近現代史綱要思想道德修養與法律基礎馬克思主義基本原理毛澤東思想、鄧小平理論和『三個代表』重要思想概論自然辯證法英語（一）,（二）, （三）,（四）體育（一）,（二）,（三）,（四）計算機基礎與應用高等教學軍事課社會實踐活動. Electives 任選課. Altogether. 307***. ** Credits and didactic hours could not be evaluated . *** Altogether credits do not include electives. 4.2.2 Shanghai University of TCM Students enrolled in the five year CM program have to take about 350 credits. Shanghai University of TCM has a trimester study system. There is a short 3rd semester in the summer. At Shanghai University of TCM, students have the possibility to choose a lot of courses from different fields. If a field could be regarded as related to Chinese Medicine, it was grouped in a Chinese Medicine field in order to make the curricula more comparable to one another. Elective fields which could not be classified because they contained both Chinese and Western Medicine were regarded as electives. The amount of Chinese Medicine is 107, 5 credits equivalent to 1647 hours. The curriculum includes 458 hours of Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies including the usual subjects (table 9). The students. 33.

(41) have to take at least 168 hours of CM Classical Texts. Every student has to select at least eight credits among several classical CM text books. The CM Clinical Studies add up to 1021 hours, including at least 300 hours of clinical practise. The students are allowed to select 11 credits of CM Clinical courses by themselves. Every student has to take at least 855 hours of Western Medicine. A high amount of 672 hours was regarded as elective courses. Moreover, the curriculum contains a lot of courses which cannot be regarded as medical courses. In the final year students have to take a 48 weeks internship in a CM hospital. It is necessary to write a thesis for graduation. The detailed analysation of this curriculum can be seen in table 9.. Table 9: Shanghai University of TCM five year curriculum. Shanghai University of TCM (5 years) Credits Hours Chinese Medicine. 107,5. 1647. CM Foundation Studies. 29 8 6,5 2 5 2,5 5. 458 112 91 80 70 35 70. CM Classical Texts. 12 8 4. 168 112 56. 66,5 7 5 5 6 5 5 5 11,5 2 4 11. 1021 98 70 70 84 70 70 70 161 28 80 220. 中醫基礎理論中藥學中藥房實踐方劑學中國醫學史醫古文. 經典課 (必) 中醫臨床經典導讀 CM Clinical Studies 中醫診斷學中醫內科學（一）中醫內科學（二）中醫外科學中醫婦科學中醫兒科學針灸學專業課 (必) 中醫診法技能訓練中內實踐（一）中內實踐（二）. 34.

(42) Table 9 continued. Western Medicine 生理學醫用化學生物化學正常人體解剖學組織胚胎學免疫學基礎與病原生物學藥理學病理學診斷學基礎影像診斷學西醫內科學西醫外科學. Medicine associated subjects 醫學倫理學基礎護理學基礎護理實踐. Others 中國近現代史綱要思想道德修養與法律基礎馬克思主義基本原理毛澤東思想、鄧小平理論和『三個代表』重要思想概論形勢與政策（一）形勢與政策（二）英語（一）,（二）日語（一）, （二）計算機應用基礎外語課(必) 藝術類課(必) 人文社會實踐體育課軍事理論與軍訓. Electives 公共基礎課專業基礎課任選課. Exam. 61. 855. 6 3 5,5 6 3,5 5 4 6 7,5 2,5 7 5. 84 42 77 84 49 70 56 84 105 36 98 70. 5,5. 129. 1,5 2 2. 21 28 80. 59. 588. 3 3 3. 42 42 42. 5. 70. 1 1. 14 14. 7. 140. 5 7 2 2 18 2. 70 98 28 28. 48. 672. 6 12 30. 84 168 420. 3 35.

(43) Table 9 continued 中藥飲片識別考試中藥理論知識臨床應用考試方劑學臨床應用考試. 1 1 1. Internship 畢業實習科室輪轉崗前培訓基礎理論考試技能考試病例程序考試畢業論文畢業實習講座. 66 48 2 2 2 2 2 8. Altogether. 48weeks. 350. In the seven year Clinical CM curriculum at Shanghai University of TCM the students have to take 479 hours of Chinese Medicine Foundation Studies also including the courses Fundamental Theories of CM Laboratory and Integrated Materia Medica Lab (table 10). The students have to take about 280 hours of Classical Chinese Medicine literature and are allowed to select 16 credits from different CM classical books by themselves. The CM Clinical Studies contain 920 hours of clinical lectures from which 11 credits can be elected from the CM professional elective field. Western Medicine courses have been increased to 1466 hours by including many different preclinical courses. The curriculum also includes two Experimental Chinese Medicine courses and a Chinese Medicine literature research course. There are about 756 hours of elective courses. In the sixth year there is a 52 weeks CM internship and in the seventh year there is a 40 weeks cultivation program including internship and research. In order to complete their studies students have to write a degree thesis. The detailed analysation of this curriculum can be seen in table 10.. 36.

(44) Table 10: Shanghai University of TCM seven year curriculum. Shanghai University of TCM (7 years) Credits Hours Chinese Medicine. 111,5. 1679. CM Foundation Studies. 30,5 8 6,5 5 5 2 2 2. 479 112 91 70 70 28 80 28. CM Classical Texts 經典課 (必) 中醫臨床經典導讀. 20 16 4. 280 224 56. CM Clinical Studies. 61 7 5 5 4 7 6 5 5 5 12. 920 98 70 70 80 140 84 70 70 70 168. 91,5. 1466. 6 3 5 3 1 5 3 2 2 5 5 6 3,5. 108 54 90 54 18 90 54 36 36 90 90 84 49. 中醫基礎理論中藥學方劑學醫古文中醫基礎綜合實驗中藥房實踐探索性中醫藥綜合實驗*. 中醫診斷學中醫內科學（一）中醫內科學（二）中內實踐（一）中內實踐（二）中醫外科學中醫婦科學中醫兒科學針灸學專業課 (必). Western Medicine 大學物理無機與分析化學有機化學物理實驗化學實驗細胞生物學生物學概論遺傳學免疫學生物化學微生物學正常人體解剖學組織胚胎學. 37.

(45) Table 10 continued 生理學病理學藥理學診斷學基礎影像診斷學西醫內科學西醫外科學預防醫學實踐. Medicine associated subjects 醫學倫理學基礎護理學基礎護理實踐. Research 實驗中醫學（一）實驗中醫學（二）中醫信息檢索. Others 中國近現代史綱要思想道德修養與法律基礎馬克思主義基本原理毛澤東思想、鄧小平理論和『三個代表』重要思想概論形勢與政策(一) 形勢與政策(二) 高等數學大學語文* 大學英語外語課(必) 藝術類課(必) 體育課軍事理論與軍訓. Electives 公共基礎課專業基礎課任選課. Exam. 6 6 4 7,5 2,5 7 5 4. 84 84 56 105 36 98 70 80. 5,5. 129. 1,5 2 2. 21 28 80. 9,5. 134. 2,5 5 2. 36 70 28. 67. 1006. 2 3 2. 36 72 54. 3. 90. 2 2 8 3 16 8 2 14 2. 36 36 144 54 288 168 28. 54. 756. 9 15 30. 126 210 420. 9. 技能考試. 2. 38.

(46) Table 10 continued 病例程序考試基礎理論考試方劑學臨床應用考試中藥飲片識別考試中藥理論知識臨床應用考試. 2 2 1 1 1. Internship 畢業實習. 112. 科室輪轉崗前培訓實習講座. 52 2 14. 52weeks. 專科實習論文設計開題課題中期匯報論文答辯. 40 1 1 2. 40weeks. Altogether. 460. 4.2.3 Nanjing University of TCM At Nanjing University of TCM students who are enrolled in the five year CM program can choose between different specialisations e.g. Chinese Internal Medicine, Chinese Paediatrics, Chinese Gynaecology etc. Most of the courses in these different programs are exactly the same. There are only a few courses which change according to the specialisation. For this research the Chinese Medicine Internal Medicine curriculum has been analysed. The curriculum includes 1476 hours of Chinese Medicine courses including 297 hours of CM Foundation Studies, 315 hours of CM Classical Texts and 864 hours of CM Clinical Studies. The CM Clinical Studies contain special lectures on different Chinese Internal Medicine topics (table 11). Every student has to take 1017 hours of Western Medicine courses. The same as in Shanghai and Beijing, Nanjing also has a lot of courses which cannot be regarded as medical courses and have political content. In the final year students have to take a 52 weeks internship in a CM hospital. Table 11 shows the detailed analysation of the curriculum.. 39.

(47) Table 11: Nanjing University of TCM five year curriculum. Nanjing University of TCM (5 years). Credits Hours. Chinese Medicine. 82. 1476. CM Foundation Studies. 16,5 4 5 4,5 3. 297 72 90 81 54. CM Classical Texts. 17,5 3 4 4 3,5 3. 315 54 72 72 63 54. CM Clinical Studies. 48 4 9 4 5,5 4,5 3,5 3,5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2. 864 72 162 72 99 81 63 63 36 36 36 36 36 36 36. 56,5. 1017. 5 3 5 4 4 4,5 4 6 2. 90 54 90 72 72 81 72 108 36. 中醫基礎理論中藥學方劑學醫古文. 內經傷寒論金匱要略溫病學中醫各家學說. 中醫診斷學中醫內科學針灸學中醫外科學中醫婦科學中醫兒科學中醫骨傷科學中醫耳鼻喉科學中醫眼科學中醫腫瘤病學中醫風濕病學中醫肝病學中醫內科醫案精選中醫急症學. Western Medicine 人體解剖學組織胚胎學生理學生物化學微生物與免疫學病理學藥理學西醫診斷學染病. 40.