比較虛擬實境與電腦視覺小說遊戲對字彙學習之效應

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(1)國立台灣師範大學英語學系碩. 士. 論. 文. Master’s Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 比較虛擬實境與電腦視覺小說遊戲對字彙學習之效應 When Simulated Reality Comes into Play: The Effect of Visual Novel Gaming in VR and PC on Vocabulary Learning. 指導教授：陳浩然博士 Advisor: Dr. Hao-Jan Chen 研究生：賴國維 Student: Kuo-Wei Lai. 中華民國一百零八年七月 July 2019.

(2) 摘要. 科技的進步為第二語言學習者帶來更多元的學習機會，在數位遊戲式學習領域中關於字彙學習的研究也隨之增加。其中，虛擬實境遊戲對語言學習的效益還有待探索，特別是在虛擬實境下的英語字彙學習，以及在教室中利用虛擬實境進行教學的可能性。因此，本研究比較第二語言學習者利用虛擬實境與電腦視覺小說遊戲學習字彙的成效，並進一步探討學習者對這兩種學習媒介的看法。三十位新北市某高中的高三生參與此研究，並被隨機分配至虛擬實境組和電腦組。首先，兩組在體驗遊戲前都接受了單字翻譯及選擇題以測量他們對目標單字的先備知識。接著，虛擬實境組利用頭戴式裝置(Oculus Go)進行五十分鐘的視覺小說遊戲(Angels and Demigods)，而電腦組則進行五十分鐘同款遊戲的電腦版。為比較兩組字彙學習的情況，在體驗遊戲後兩組受試者都接受了單字後測、延後測，以及問卷，以了解他們對此學習方式的感想。研究結果顯示兩組受試者在單字翻譯和選擇題都有比前測更好的表現。虛擬實境組的後測和延後測平均分數皆高於電腦組，但只有在單字翻譯的延後測呈現顯著。另外，本研究也發現圖片在虛擬實境的呈現下更有助於單字學習。最後，透過問卷可得知兩組受試者對虛擬視覺小說遊戲都有正面評價，並且願意將此做為英語字彙學習的工具。. 關鍵字：虛擬實境、數位遊戲式學習、字彙學習. I.

(3) Abstract Research on vocabulary acquisition in digital-game based learning has been increasing over the years, with advancements in technology giving rise to numerous learning alternatives in second language acquisition. As virtual reality gaming offers new opportunities to explore its effectiveness in language learning, it is thus important to investigate the benefits of virtual reality on English vocabulary learning, as well as the potential in incorporating virtual reality to teaching practices in the classroom. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of VR and PC gaming on L2 learners’ vocabulary learning, as well as their affective perception. Thirty Grade 12 students studying at a senior high school in New Taipei City participated in this study and were randomly assigned to either the VR or PC group. The VR group played a Scifi VR visual novel game, Angels and Demigods, using the Oculus Go whereas the PC group played the same game in the PC version without the VR elements. The gaming session lasted for fifty minutes for both groups. A vocabulary translation and recognition pretest, posttest and delayed posttest were adopted to compare their performance, along with a questionnaire to probe on their perception towards their respective treatment. The results revealed that both the VR group and the PC group were able to gain vocabulary knowledge in both the translation and recognition tests. In comparison, the VR group demonstrated a higher mean score than the PC group, as well as reaching a significant level in the vocabulary translation delayed posttest. The findings also suggested that images that appeared in the game through VR mediation better facilitated vocabulary acquisition. Comments from the questionnaire showed. II.

(4) that learners in both groups enjoyed playing the visual novel game and were willing to adopt it as a tool for learning vocabulary. Key words: virtual reality, DGBLL, vocabulary learning. III.

(5) Acknowledgements This dissertation could not have been completed without the generous support from my advisor, Dr. Hao-jan Chen, who has provided me with his knowledge, time and resources in guiding me through this challenging period. Without his help, I would not have overcome the difficulties in my writing process. To my committee members, Dr. Jie-chi Yang and Dr. Hung-chun Wang, if it were not for their patience in reading my dissertation, without their clarification my dissertation would not have reached the standard it is today. I offer my sincere appreciation for their valuable suggestions and comments that have immensely helped enrich my study. I’m deeply grateful to my friends and family, especially to my parents, who were there with me every step of the way. Being the pillar and support of my life, my parents are the ones who showed me endless love that kept me going through writing this dissertation. Most importantly, to my most beloved girlfriend and cohort, this study would not have been possible without her last minute arrangements in recruiting the participants. She is also the one who selflessly sacrificed her time to discuss my research and offer me endless constructive advice. Words cannot express how thankful I am to her for all that she has done for me. My deepest gratitude to you.. IV.

(6) Table of Contents 摘要.................................................................................................................................I Abstract ......................................................................................................................... II Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................IV Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... V CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1 1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Purposes of the Study ........................................................................................... 5 1.3 Research Questions .............................................................................................. 7 1.4 Organization of the Study .................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................. 9 2.1 Digital Game-Based Language Learning ............................................................. 9 2.1.1 Vocabulary Learning in Gaming ................................................................. 10 2.1.2 DGBLL via Visual Novel Games ................................................................ 14 2.2 Virtual Reality and Language Learning ............................................................. 17 2.2.1 Characteristics of VR and its Potential ........................................................ 18 2.2.2 Studies in Language Learning Involving VR .............................................. 19 2.3 Empirical Studies in VR and Vocabulary Learning ........................................... 21 2.4 Summary of Chapter 2 ....................................................................................... 23 CHAPTER THREE METHOD ................................................................................... 25 3.1 Participants ......................................................................................................... 25 3.2 Instruments ......................................................................................................... 26 3.2.1 Oculus Go .................................................................................................... 26 3.2.2 Angels and Demigods (Virtual Novel Game) ............................................. 27 3.2.2.1 VR-supported Gaming Condition .............................................. 33 3.2.2.2 PC-supported Gaming Condition ............................................... 35 3.2.3 Target Words ............................................................................................... 35 3.3 Data Collection ................................................................................................... 38 3.3.1 Vocabulary Translation and Recognition Test ............................................ 38 3.3.2 Questionnaire ............................................................................................... 39 3.4 Procedure ............................................................................................................ 40 3.5 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS ..................................................................................... 43. V.

(7) 4.1 Descriptive Statistics on Participants’ Vocabulary Tests ................................... 43 4.1.1 Results: Vocabulary Translation Test .......................................................... 43 4.1.2 Results: Vocabulary Recognition Test ........................................................ 46 4.2 Target word presentation and retention rate ....................................................... 50 4.2.1 Word frequency and retention rate .............................................................. 50 4.2.2 Images and retention rate ............................................................................. 51 4.3 Questionnaire Results ......................................................................................... 52 4.3.1 Participants’ Perception towards Vocabulary Learning with the Game ...... 53 4.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Learning English Vocabulary with Angels and Demigods ........................................................................................... 56 4.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 59 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................ 61 5.1 Summary of findings .......................................................................................... 61 5.2 Discussion on research findings ......................................................................... 62 5.2.1 The Effects of VR and PC Visual Novel Gaming on Vocabulary Recall and Retention ............................................................................................................... 62 5.2.2 Differences in Vocabulary Recall and Retention Between the VR Group and the PC Group ................................................................................................. 64 5.2.3 Learners’ Perceptions of VR and PC Visual Novel Gaming....................... 66 5.3 Limitations of the study...................................................................................... 68 5.4 Pedagogical Implications ................................................................................... 69 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 71 Appendix A Translation Pretest ................................................................................... 85 Appendix B Immediate Translation Posttest ............................................................... 86 Appendix C Short-Delayed Translation Posttest ......................................................... 87 Appendix D Recognition Pretest ................................................................................. 88 Appendix E Immediate Recognition Posttest .............................................................. 90 Appendix F Short-Delayed Recognition Posttest ........................................................ 92 Appendix G Questionnaire (VR Group) ...................................................................... 94 Appendix H Questionnaire (PC Group) ....................................................................... 96. VI.

(8) List of Tables Table 1: Words Classification (The shortest path playable)…………………..….….36 Table 2: Target Word List (based on raw frequency of occurrences)………………..37 Table 3: Presentation of Target Words……………………………………………….38 Table 4: Results of Independent Samples T-Test for Participants’ Vocabulary Translation Test……………………………...……………………………...44 Table 5: Summary of one-way repeated measures ANOVA on the translation test for PC…………………………………………………………………………...45 Table 6: Summary of one-way repeated measures ANOVA on translation test for VR…………………………………………………………………….…….46 Table 7: Results of Independent Samples T-Test for Participants’ Vocabulary Recognition Tests…………………………………………………….….…48 Table 8: Summary of one-way repeated measures ANOVA on the recognition test for PC..................................................................................................................49 Table 9: Summary of one-way repeated measures ANOVA on the recognition test for VR…………………………………………………………………………..49 Table 10: Correlation between frequency of target word and retention rate in translation immediate posttest for VR………………………………………51 Table 11: Correlation between frequency of target word and retention rate in translation immediate posttest for PC………………………………………51 Table 12: Statistics for image association and retention rate for both groups....…….52 Table 13: Independent-samples t test on words with and without image association for both groups………….…………………………………………………...…52 Table 14: Mean scores of participants’ perception of the game Angels and Demigods…………………………………………………………………..53 Table 15: Mean scores of VR participants’ perception towards learning English Vocabulary with Angels and Demigods……………….…………………54 Table 16: Mean scores of PC participants’ perception towards learning English Vocabulary with Angels and Demigods……………………...……………55. VII.

(9) List of Figures Figure 1. Oculus Go …………………………………………………………..……..26 Figure 2. Oculus Go controller ………………………………………………..……..26 Figure 3. The protagonist breaking through his cell Figure ………………...……….28 Figure 4. Protagonist at the facility talking with the NPC …………………………..29 Figure 5. Background scene of the angel’s cell outside………………………….…..30 Figure 6. Meeting Ashley and choosing a response in interacting with her ………....31 Figure 7. Ashley attacking the protagonist ……………………...….…………….….32 Figure 8. Screen showing player that they failed …………………………..………..33 Figure 9. Data Collection Procedure ………………………………………………...41 Figure 10. Participants’ Vocabulary Productive Gains at Three Time Points…….…45 Figure 11. Participants’ Vocabulary Receptive Gains at Three Time Points…….….48. VIII.

(10) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The worldwide gaming industry has grown exponentially in the past three decades, seeing a $30 billion value in the market which is only getting bigger each year. The definition of a game has varied among different contexts, though the analogy most accepted by the majority is the one proposed by Ellington, Addinall and Percival (1982, p. 9) who define it as “any contest (play) among adversaries (players) operating under constrains (rules) for an objective (winning, victory pay-off)”. As Prensky (2003) puts it, games have the ability to stimulate engagement in players attention and increase their motivation for playing hours on, thus, it can only be sensible to integrate the content of learning with the motivation of games. Due to the immense popularity among players across all ages around the globe, digital games have sparked numerous research on its potential for learning in educational contexts through a variety of subject matters (Hwang & Wang, 2016; Law & Chen, 2016; Papastergiou, 2009). This phenomenon in research thus coined the term, digital game-based learning (DGBL). Researchers have directed their attention to the entertainment element of games as it can elicit strong motivation and engagement in players, which can be beneficial in promoting learning (Annetta, Minogue, Holmes, & Cheng, 2009; Lee & Peng, 2006; Tobias & Fletcher, 2008). This emerging trend also garnered attention from the field of second and foreign language learning, which gave rise to the term, digital game-based language learning (DGBLL). In this sense, digital games are implemented for learners and educators for the purpose of learning or teaching a second or foreign language (Cornillie, Thorne, & 1.

(11) Desmet, 2012). A popular genre in games such as massively multiplayer online roleplaying games (MMORPGs) are largely used in language literature studies as they constitute an entertaining experience offered by most commercial-of-the-shelf (COTS) games (Peterson, 2010; Reinders, 2012; Sykes, Reinhardt, & Thorne, 2010). On the other hand, “serious games” have also been developed for the primary purpose of focusing on the learning content and designed to fit educational settings (Cornillie et al., 2012). However, Reinhardt (2017) notes that while this may seem as an endeavour for students and teachers to foster a more serious outlook on educational games, the definition of a game should still remain as being playful. Gee (2003) indicates that the fun and engaging elements of games are good tools for deeper learning. Nevertheless, as DGBLL studies have expanded significantly over the years, selecting appropriate games for learners has been crucial to elicit learning. Kronenberg (2016) proposed nine criteria when selecting suitable COTS games used in language learning, with one of the criteria being multimodality. As games utilize multiple communicative modes to convey verbal and non-verbal information, the multimodality affordance allows learners to develop their literacy skills when reading the paratexts (i.e. the texts around the digital games) in the game (Bazinet, 2015). This in turn provides an authentic objective for reading in-game texts to exercise literacy learning (Commeyras, 2009). Accordingly, a plethora of DGBLL studies have investigated the correlation between games and vocabulary learning in previous research. In fact, studies involving vocabulary learning in DGBLL is one of the most popular types in recent years (Hung, Yang, Hwang, Chu, & Wang, 2018). Though most of the studies showed mixed results, many indicated that there was a positive correlation between 2.

(12) vocabulary learning gaming and in a variety of genres (Chen & Yang, 2013; Zheng, Bischoff, & Gilliland, 2015; Hwang & Wang, 2016). As technology is continuously progressing and rapidly changing our lives, educators and learners are offered new resources and tools to implement in educational settings. Though still at its early stages, studies involving virtual reality (VR) has gradually begun to establish itself in the field of language learning (Morrison, 2017). VR can be defined as "a highly interactive, computer-based, multimedia environment in which the user becomes a participant with the computer in a 'virtually real' world" (Pantelidis, 1993, p. 23). The visualization of a threedimensional (3D) environment that VR provides may induce an immersive sensation for the user in the computer-generated virtual world (Huang, Rauch, & Liaw, 2010). The objects on the screen can be manipulated through human sensorial channels such as visual, auditory, olfactory and tactile senses to establish physical immersion in the scene (Sherman & Craig, 2003), giving the user a simulated scenario which has the illusion of presence that creates a realism in which they believe is experienced in real time (Liu, Dede, Huang & Richards, 2017). Through these unique affordances, researchers contend that the potential for VR can provide promising opportunities for learners to be successful in language learning in the years to come (Chen, 2016; Schwienhorst, 2002). In second language acquisition (SLA), effective language learning is often directly linked to imparting appropriate, authentic contexts (Krashen, 1985). VR’s design is able to offer virtual assets that can construct authentic contexts for users to develop their scope of learning (Lin & Kuo, 2005). This immersive feature can cater to learners’ attention to explore the environment and interact with the elements rooted within the virtual setting (Wang & Braman, 2009), an advantage in which one is 3.

(13) capable of leading learners to engage in learning activities (Hanson & Shelton, 2008). These realistic virtual environments beckon an immersive context (Lan, Fang, Legault, & Li, 2015) that enables the users to fully experience the target language without being obliged to go abroad (Morrison, 2017). Another feature of VR is its interactivity, as the technology seeks to simulate a more real and immersive learning setting, the users would adopt a situational learning approach to interact with the environment (Chittaro & Ranon, 2007). Vygotsky (1986) proposes that socially mediated activity forges learning and emphasizes the critical importance of interaction for L2 learners to gain a target language. VR enables users with the opportunity to build meaningful interactions through cooperative and taskbased learning (Berns, Gonzalez-Pardo, & Camacho, 2013). The fundamental experience that VR aims to deliver is the strong sense of presence (Slater, 2017; Wang, Petrina, & Feng, 2017). This further adds to the illusion of embodiment and body ownership, giving the user a perceptual illusion of the virtual body being their actual body under the VR scenario that can result in implicit changes in the users’ attitudes, perception, cognition and changes in behaviour as well (Slater, 2017). This virtual embodiment may elicit implicit learning, a process whereby individuals learn complex information unconsciously and gain abstract knowledge through this process (Reber, 1989). This experience in which VR can provide supports the idea of incidental learning which is argued to be effective in second or foreign language learning (Krashen, 1989; Seger, 1994). These key features in VR may aid language instructors in classroom settings, as embodied representation in L2 learning context suggests that such immersive environments can be successfully provided with VR in L2 instruction (Lan et al.,. 4.

(14) 2015, 2014). This benefits instructors to establish desirable learning environments that may foster involvement in learners (Blin, 2005). In addition, VR provides perceptual– visual–sensory features which is crucial in outlining a representation of a certain word (e.g., shape, size, motion, and location of the to be learned item) (Legault, Zhao, Chi, Chen, Klippel & Li, 2019). This engages learners to a natural and embodied rich context that may assist instructors in providing authentic examples in teaching vocabulary. Based on the discussions above, gaming offers great potential as a resource for language learners (Abrams & Walsh, 2014; Baltra, 1990; deHaan, 2005; Franciosi, 2016). And with the evolving development of technology, the gaming experience now transcends to virtual reality which brings new opportunities into language classrooms with dynamic and authentic learning experiences (Lan 2014; Lan, Chen, Li, & Grant, 2015). VR therefore holds potential for meaningful input that allows learners to go beyond textbooks and offers much flexibility compared to traditional classroom learning (Freina & Ott, 2015).. 1.2 Purposes of the Study While there are copious amounts of studies on vocabulary learning in the field of DGBLL, literature published on vocabulary learning with VR is still in lack in foreign and second language teaching as far as the author knows. Although existing research done in L2 learning with VR is focused primarily on learners’ motivational and affective learning (Chen, 2016; Chung, 2012; Lan, 2014) as well as engagement (Alfadil, 2017; Cheng, Yang, & Andersen, 2017) and self-efficacy (Stanton, 2017), studies involving VR are still underutilized in this field (Lloyd, Rogerson, & Stead,. 5.

(15) 2017). Albeit the positive benefits of VR, evidence in supporting its affordances in L2 learning are still limited or is yet to be determined (Chen, Doong, & Hsu, 2014; Chen, 2016). Potential benefits of VR may provide alternative pedagogical opportunities when it comes to vocabulary learning. In most conventional classroom cases, one teacher would need to lecture an entire class of students which may be difficult for the teacher to track each of the students’ individual progress. Students learning of new vocabulary may be inconsistent and those who have trouble understanding the newly taught vocabulary may not always voice their problems to the teacher, as this may cause learning anxiety or feelings of embarrassment in front of their peers. This may lead to teachers not being aware of students’ learning and students struggling to keep up in class. VR may help overcome these traditional language classroom constraints and barriers which usually addresses multiple students at once, as it supports learnercentred experiences that give learners control over their language learning process (Jung, 2002; Wilang & Soermphongsuwat, 2018), instructors are able to equip each individual learner with related vocabulary teaching materials using VR in the classroom settings. The assistive technology of VR hence could enable learners to learn and use vocabulary in realistic situations, helping them comprehend and understand a meaning of a certain word (Gee & Levine, 2009). The authentic and realistic affordances in VR may enable learners to visualize, understand, and construct their own knowledge (Schwienhorst, 2002; Lan, 2016), facilitating them to learn new vocabulary. Furthermore, as VR is becoming more prevalent in the gaming industry, the emergence of variant types of headsets offers consumers more choices in affordable devices. This presents opportunities for cost effective VR learning experiences in 6.

(16) classroom environments, allowing educators more flexibility with feasible teaching tools to use (Samsudin, Rafi, Mohamad-Ali, & Rashid, 2014). These opportunities would also draw on new challenges for educators, which is thus crucial for beckoning empirical evidence from effective L2 teaching and learning in VR gaming. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the effect of VR gaming on L2 learners’ vocabulary learning, as well as their affective perception. Suggestions for pedagogical implications would also be offered for the applications of VR in educational environments. The purposes of the present study are as follows: 1. To investigate the effect of VR gaming on L2 learners’ vocabulary learning and retention. 2. To explore L2 learners’ perceptions or attitudes in vocabulary learning through VR gaming. 3. To determine whether there is a difference in the impact of vocabulary learning through playing a game with a PC or a VR medium. 4. To investigate and propose pedagogical implications from L2 learners’ perceptions towards using VR as a tool for vocabulary learning.. 1.3 Research Questions This empirical study aims to achieve the following research questions: 1. How does VR-supported visual novel gaming influence L2 learners’ immediate and delayed vocabulary recall in comparison with PC visual novel gaming? 2. Does VR-supported visual novel gaming lead to L2 learners’ better vocabulary recall than PC visual novel gaming? 7.

(17) 3. Do different presentations of vocabulary words (word occurrence and image association) correlate with learners’ performance on vocabulary recall? 4. How do L2 learners perceive using VR or PC visual novel gaming as a mode for vocabulary learning?. 1.4 Organization of the Study This thesis paper would be organized by the following. Chapter One provides an introduction to the background information of DGBL and its ensuing of DGBLL, which is then followed by the emergence of VR in second and foreign language studies. Chapter Two lays out the theoretical elements of this study, a review of empirical literature on vocabulary learning in DGBLL will be elaborated. This section will briefly introduce VR along with a few of its recent research studies, followed by previous studies focused on VR related issues in language learning which will also be addressed to highlight its potential in this field. Chapter Three will present the methodology used in this study. Chapter Four will detail both the qualitative and quantitative results. A thorough discussion based on the findings shall be presented in Chapter Five along with a brief summary of the findings, pedagogical implications, and potential research for the future.. 8.

(18) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of VR and PC visual novel gaming on L2 learners’ vocabulary learning and retention. This chapter will review research related to DGBLL, VR and vocabulary learning. Section 2.1 will first review the concept of DGBLL with related research to vocabulary learning, including some studies involving the text adventure games and visual novel games. Section 2.2 will introduce VR and recent studies involving VR that may suggest the possibility and potential for it to be used as a tool for language learning. Lastly, section 2.3 will further explore the noticeable research regarding VR vocabulary learning. 2.1 Digital Game-Based Language Learning Digital game-based learning (DGBL) emerged during the global technology boom in the last decades of the 20th century (Prensky, 2003), when the basic requirements for a learning environment were identified to be present in digital games (Norman, 2007). Though, traditionally, games were designed to only be entertaining, educators began to see the promise and potential it holds in engaging and facilitating learning (Burguillo, 2010; Ebner & Holzinger, 2007). Thus, a proliferation in studies focusing on the effects of digital games has been conducted in various courses (Chang, Peng & Chao, 2010; Liu & Chu, 2010; Kiili, 2007). One of the most recognized branches of study would be none other than digital game-based language learning (DGBLL). Studies involving DGBLL breaches two different types of games, COTS game and serious games. The former is a sub-category which uses a gameenhanced approach to learning, meaning the games implemented were initially. 9.

(19) designed for entertainment purposes only, while the latter focuses on an educationoriented application of game-based language learning (Reinhardt & Sykes, 2012). The comparison on the suitable application of COTS and serious games are still widely debated to this day. Arguments from researchers who stand in favour of serious games contend that game-mediated studies should proceed from a theoretical basis, as this may support appropriate pedagogical practices (Peterson, 2013). Others who uphold game-enhanced approaches argue that although the advantages of serious games serve to support from a deductive approach, these games tend to be perceived as “chocolate-covered broccoli” (Habgood & Ainsworth 2011, p. 172), meaning players’ perception towards a game should not lose the elements of being fun and playful so as to retain its motivational capacity (Hubbard, 1991). Nevertheless, most agree that good game designs are still fundamental in L2 teaching and learning regardless of its nature. It is important that the affordances of game-mediated environments provide integrated experiences in play which can achieve authentic L2 learning that contextualize meaningful language use (Reinhardt, 2017). 2.1.1 Vocabulary Learning in Gaming One of the most prominent studies in DGBLL is dedicated to the acquisition of vocabulary in second language learning (Hwang & Wu, 2012). According to Hung et al’s (2018) meta-analysis of 50 studies collected in DGBLL, a large body of the literature typically focused more on the area of vocabulary learning than any other language learning skills (grammar, speaking, writing, etc). While many of these empirical studies reported on positive gains in terms of L2 vocabulary learning, some still reveal negative and mixed results (Sundqvist & Wikström, 2015; deHaan, Reed, & Kuwada, 2010). Due to this phenomenon, some researchers would adopt a metaanalysis method in their studies to discover the varying factors of this issue (Chen, 10.

(20) Tseng, & Hsiao, 2018). Tsai and Tsai (2018) provided a review on 26 published studies in DGBLL and suggested that there are moderator variables which place significant effects on the outcomes in vocabulary learning. These variables include game type and assessment type and will be specifically reviewed in the following section. Game type refers to the drill-and-practice types of games that provide exposure of words to players through multiple texts. Franciosi, Yagi, Tomoshige and Ye (2016) conducted a quasi-experimental study on Japanese EFL undergraduates to explore whether a simulation game can facilitate long term vocabulary retention. Two classes from a university were divided into the treatment group and control group. The treatment group was instructed to use an online vocabulary learning application, Quizlet, for 40 minutes followed by a simulation game called 3rd World Farmer for the rest of the class (50 minutes). The control group were told to only use Quizlet during the class period. The participants were given the posttest a week later, followed by a delayed posttest 11 weeks later. Results revealed that the treatment group performed slightly better than the control group in both the posttest and delayed posttest. Albeit there was only a significant difference in the delayed posttest, the researchers proposed that a simulation gameplay helped enhance the long-term retention of learners’ vocabulary knowledge. These results showed that the treatment administered in the classroom elicited positive results in the learners, though further discussion is needed in investigating whether similar results can be elicited outside of the classroom context in future studies.. 11.

(21) Yen, Chen and Huang (2016) designed both a qualitative and quantitative study on EFL learners’ vocabulary learning through a mobile game-based application. The mobile app was specifically developed for learning English vocabulary with game related functions which may be enabled or disabled at will. Twenty sophomore students who took part in the study and were randomly assigned into the experimental group, in which students were to use the app with the game related functions, or the control group where students can only experience the drill practices as game related functions were removed. A pretest was carried out before the ongoing four-week treatment that was then followed by an immediate posttest. The delayed posttest was given after a fortnight to evaluate the students’ vocabulary retention. The results from the data showed that both groups were able to benefit from the treatment, with the experimental group achieving a significantly higher score than that of the control group in both the post and delayed posttest. Moreover, the qualitative data from the questionnaire revealed that the students perceived the game function in the mobile vocabulary learning app to be effective and satisfactory. The findings thus suggest that drill practice alone might not be as effective without gaming qualities when it comes to learning new vocabulary in a target language. To confirm the correlation of the usage behaviours of the students in the experimental group and their learning outcomes, a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted. The study found that significant positive correlations existed among vocabulary acquisition and several usage behaviours including the use of time, total click times and gamified assessment. Furthermore, a significant negative correlation was found between vocabulary acquisition and traditional assessment as well. Both qualitative and quantitative results deemed that the gaming elements in the vocabulary. 12.

(22) learning app can positively influence learners’ performance, as well as generating a positive perception to adopting it as a learning tool. Assessment types refers to tests which examine language learner’s passive/receptive or active/productive word knowledge (Laufer & Paribakht, 1998). Tsai and Tsai’s (2018) meta-analytical study referred to assessment type as being one of the significant moderator variables when it comes to DGBLL studies. Researchers have argued that when measuring word knowledge, learners’ performance was better facilitated when it comes to active processing of word knowledge than passive processing (Hwang & Wang, 2016; Sandberg, Maris, & Hoogendoorn, 2014). Hwang and Wang (2016) adopted two different assessment strategies in a role-playing game in their study– a “multiple-choice guiding strategy” and a “cloze guiding strategy.” Fifty sixth graders from two classes in an elementary school in Taipei participated in the study. One class of students (N=23) played the game with multiple-choice guiding instructions while the other with cloze guiding instructions. Two English achievement tests, including ten selection and ten fill-in-the-blank question items were used as preand posttest to examine the students’ improvements after the treatment. A cognitive load questionnaire and an in-depth interview were employed with three selected students, namely low, medium, and high level in terms of their learning achievement. Results from the study revealed that students who played the game with a cloze guiding strategy outperformed those with the multiple-choice guiding strategy. The researchers further noted that data collected from the questionnaire and interview that students in the cloze group indicate that the tasks in the game were challenging to complete. Moreover, the cloze task required players to review the learning content if they failed to answer the learning tasks, a sequence in which the multiple-choice group could avert as they would only need to guess another answer until they got it 13.

(23) correct. The cloze task stimulates learners to explore the context within the game to complete it. This explorative process demands learners to revert back and rethink different strategies to solve the learning tasks, a concept of “reflective practice” which helps heighten learners’ engagement that then facilitates deeper learning (Gee, 2007, pp 90-91). The cloze group’s perceptions tended to review the context of the game more thoroughly than those of the multiple-choice group. The cloze group also engaged in deeper cognitive processing of the information, thus leading them to learning the content of the game. The aforementioned studies have highlighted the opportunities and potentials that digital gaming may have on influencing and enhancing learners’ vocabulary knowledge, a trend that would see much growth in studies concerning DGBLL. 2.1.2 DGBLL via Visual Novel Games Selection of suitable COTS games has been iterated by Kronenberg (2016), providing a set of criteria for those to follow when conducting studies in language learning. And while numerous DGBLL literature have been done with the MMORPG genre, (Thorne, 2008; Rankin, Gold, & Gooch, 2006; Reinders & Wattana, 2011; Zheng, Bischoff, & Gilliland, 2015), surprisingly, there are few studies that have focused on the visual novel genre in DGBLL studies. Visual novel is an interactive game genre which originates from Japan. Similar to that of a text adventure game, where players are to participate in the story by making choices throughout the game. While text adventure games contain mostly of text, visual novels include interactive, static or sprite-based visuals, usually with anime style of art. In more developed visual novels, the game would comprise animation, sounds, interactivities and dialogues that offer various plot and endings based on the choices of the player towards the in-game 14.

(24) conversations. The predominant text and narrative element in visual novels motivate learners by offering an interesting, challenging, and demanding environment where the learner has the opportunity to make interactions (Faizal, 2016). Faizal (2016) conducted a study on learners’ English achievement and motivation with a conversation-gambits visual novel game. In the study, 54 students were divided in half to either the experimental or control group. The experimental group was required to play the visual novel game in English class while the control learned about conversation-gambits through conventional teachings in a book during class. The visual novel game was designed to simulate conversations between two people with conversation gambit elements used throughout the game. The pretest, pre and post motivational survey, treatment and posttest were all conducted during a fourweek period. An additional in-depth interview was conducted on the experimental group after the 4 weeks treatment to make further analysis of students’ perception towards language learning through the visual novel game. According to the students’ perception, the motivational survey resulted in mixed responses as learners differed in preference towards teaching and learning methods. However, both treatments significantly contributed a positive effect on the learners’ posttest, with the experimental group outperforming the control group. In the interview, learners mentioned that the game was able to influence their willingness to complete the game, which was a factor that associated with fun learning. One also stated that the game increased his motivation in not only completing the game, but also to learn English as it takes way the mundane element of learning in conventional contexts. This study highlights that certain games are able facilitate effective learning in students and suggests that teaching materials involving digital games may be incorporated in school systems to support active learning. 15.

(25) Furtado, Hirashima and Yusuke (2018) explored learners’ learning gains in unknown words in the presence of foreign language with a self-developed serious visual novel game. This study recruited 13 Japanese university students that were randomly assigned to two groups. Both groups received different sequential conditions and different textual content within the study. The two conditions were “text to game” or “game to text”, while the contents were categorized as “game A”, “game B”, “text A” and “text B”. The text-game group would receive text A and game B while the game-text group used game A and text B. Both the text and game contained dummy words that were then tested on the participants in the posttest that was divided into three sections: The cognitive memory section where learners were asked to write as much detail as possible; textual interpretation section and word comprehension section. The textual interpretation section focused on testing learners’ comprehension of the story content while the comprehension section required learners to translate and explain the meaning of the dummy words. A user perception survey was taken by the participants at the end of the experiment. A two-way analysis showed that the order of use did not have a significant impact on information acquired, though content experienced through the game medium had a positive effect on students’ learning of dummy words than that experienced from only reading the text. Albeit students pointed out in the survey that both conditions were equally effective in their learning, the results exhibit that information was inferred better by playing the visual novel game. In addition, most of the participants showed a positive attitude towards using the game as a learning tool and felt that the application was easy to use. It should be noted that although both studies mentioned above indicated positive results in language learning, the amount of studies involving visual novels is still relatively small. And while one study focuses 16.

(26) on the learning of dummy words, there is still a lack in studies specifically exploring authentic vocabulary learning. 2.2 Virtual Reality and Language Learning With the rapid development of technology, the evolution of games has benefited users with better enhanced graphics and overall quality in the gaming experience. Hence, the emergence of VR, where a highly interactive environment can be simulated to the human senses. VR uses computer graphics system that combines disparate interface devices to simulate the effect of immersion in a 3D environment (Pan et al., 2006). Once immersed in the interface, the user can turn and move like they do in the real world, with the digital setting responding to maintain the illusion of one being in the presence of a simulated setting (Liu, Dede, Huang, & Richards, 2017). This immersive experience enables users to feel their genuine presence in the virtual environment (Burdea & Coiffet, 2003; Sherman & Craig, 2003). In previous studies, VR has been applied in a variety of fields such as medicine (Djukic, Mandic, & Filipovic, 2013; Huang, Rauch, & Liaw, 2010), military training, industrial work simulations (Blascovich & Bailenson, 2011) and gaming applications (Guttentag, 2010). Advances in the development of VR have become more feasible for educators in the classroom setting, with some being hopeful in seeing the potentials it may hold in language education (Morrison, 2017). Along with a few studies done with integrating VR and language learning (Lan, Chen, Li, & Grant, 2015; Lan & Liao, 2018; Peterson, 2011), VR technology has brought authentic elements into language classrooms and that offer learners real-time, dynamic and authentic learning experiences to meet learners’ growing experiences in this digital era.. 17.

(27) 2.2.1 Characteristics of VR and its Potential The following features of VR will be introduced that may be utilized to support language learning: Simulation, immersion, embodiment and interactivity. One of the key components of VR is its ability to allow users to perform things that cannot be done in real life (National Research Council, 2011). The setting could be created to mimic reality which allows users to collect and transfer information that correspond to real-life situations. VR introduces new innovative ways to provide learners with opportunities to carry out effective and meaningful learning in simulated real-world practices (O’Brien & Levy, 2008). Another concept that is frequently mentioned in VR is immersion. Immersion in games causes users to be unaware of time as the involvement strongly enforces their focus on the task at hand (Jennet, Cox, Cairns, Dhoparee, Epps, Tijs, & Walton, 2008), giving the perception of being physically present in a non-physical world (Freina & Ott, 2015). Users can interpret the visual and auditory cues to gather information while engaging in the synthetic environment to navigate and control objects to accomplish physical immersion. In regard to language learning, Lan, Fang, Legault, and Li (2015) suggest that immersive contexts can administer an easily accessible alternative to a physical condition, while maintaining some features of embodiment in the learning environment. This realistic scenario may facilitate learners to become immersed in a target language community without needing to travel abroad to those locations (Aedo, Jemmi, Spector, & Zaiceva, 2011). The limitations to not being physically in pertinent contexts may lead to a lack of authentic learning experience for learners. VR could substitute this predicament by providing users the illusion of the event experienced in the virtual reality to be happening in real time. In other words, if one may perceive the undergoing task in an 18.

(28) environment that would normally be perceived, then that person would be in that environment (Slater, 2017). Embodiment is the perception of the virtual body in the VR as being the user’s actual body, which creates a strong sense of presence in the immersed environment. A learner may be motivated to cognitively process a learning material more deeply when experiencing the virtual setting, which Lee, Wong and Fung (2010, p. 1435) state “the higher the level of presence, the better the learning outcomes”. Interactivity is probably one of the most crucial elements of VR (Huang et al., 2010; Onyesolu & Eze, 2011). In gaming, interactivity broadly refers to the degree and quality of “communication between an individual player and the digital gaming system through different forms of activities” (Cruz-Cunha, M. M., 2012, p. 566). VR further provides immersive interaction which may encompass five common types of interactivity proposed by Moreno & Mayer (2007): Dialoguing, controlling, manipulating, searching, and navigating. This may facilitate collaborative learning and social scaffolding for strong communication between learners as they actively acquire language by interacting with their environment, whether human or digital (Chittaro & Ranon, 2007). These types of context-based social interaction in VR could fosters learners’ language competence and communicative proficiency (Wang, Petrina, & Feng, 2017). 2.2.2 Studies in Language Learning Involving VR VR may still be in the early stages of development, though much investment has been put into the technology that give good reason to place faith in the opportunities it could bring to language learning (Lloyd et al., 2017). In Yeh and Lan’s (2018) research on the influence of VR on learner autonomy, 29 elementary school students took part in a four-month study using an online platform with a 3D 19.

(29) virtual context. A questionnaire, interview and thorough observation were implemented to evaluate the results. It was revealed that the virtual environment had a positive impact on learners’ autonomous learning, giving them the authentic opportunity to produce English output. This is in accordance with Merrill’s (2002) principles of instruction in emphasizing the importance of students engaging in meaningful learning tasks. Learners’ oral output in Mandarin Chinese with VR was explored in Lan’s (2014) study with overseas Chinese students. Students in the experimental group used role-play in an interactive, virtual platform called Second Life to practice their communicative skills, while those in the control group received conventional teachings only. A learning-attitudes questionnaire and an online Mandarin oral performance test revealed that learners had a positive perception towards the medium as a learning tool, as well as improvement in their Mandarin oral skills. Yang and Andersen (2017) investigated the impact of VR on university students learning Japanese. Sixty-eight participants who self-reported having a lack of familiarity with the Japanese culture and language were recruited in this study. A 3D game called Crystallize was adapted to measure whether the feature of presence in the game was able to promote language and culture learning for the students. The participants played two versions of the game, one being on PC while the other using a VR headset (Oculus Rift HMD). The virtual environment provides an immersive nature that deeply engages learners to gather information in the particular synthetic setting (Sherman & Craig, 2003; Wang & Braman, 2009).. 20.

(30) 2.3 Empirical Studies in VR and Vocabulary Learning The VR innovation has prompted its potential in fostering and facilitating language learning (Blin, 2005), as it generates situated learning, it has made it clearer and easier for improving cognitive memory (Gee & Levine, 2009). Due to the promotion of such features, some researchers believe that VR may have a positive impact for providing contextual vocabulary learning. Lan (2015) developed a situated, 3D virtual context that simulates an English Village for 132 elementary EFL students in Taiwan. A performance test was given to the students to measure whether the virtual learning environment facilitated in their vocabulary learning. Results revealed that although there was no significance, their vocabulary knowledge was enhanced in the post-test. This study was a 2-iteration action research that lasted for an entire semester, where a native English teacher taught the students through a physical English Village medium in the first iteration. The second iteration involved the VR simulation of an English village with similar to the context in the first. This may indicate that although vocabulary uptake occurred in the students, it is unknown whether the learning was garnered through the physical, virtual or simultaneously of the English Village context. Chen (2016) investigated the effects of a learning environment in the form of a virtual department store on students’ linguistic development and vocabulary learning. Four hundred and forty-eight undergraduates from a university in Taiwan took part in this study, where the participants were required to complete six units in the virtual platform during the semester. Each unit represented a floor resembling to that of a department store and takes 25 minutes to accomplish the tasks given. A vocabulary pretest and posttest were administered to the participants to measure their performances. Results indicated that participants increased their range of vocabulary 21.

(31) knowledge, as they were able to identify and match vocabulary to the corresponding sentences better in the posttest. The study suggests that the unique features of VR positively affected the participants’ language cognition and provided them with an innovative method for contextual learning. In Madini and Alshakihi’s (2017) study, VR videos were presented to twenty postgraduate Saudi students to measure the impact on their English for specific purpose (ESP) vocabulary retention. The videos were viewed through a VR goggle over a six-week period, where a vocabulary pretest and posttest were employed to assess the students’ performance. The results showed that learners’ vocabulary retention increased significantly. Although there is evidence in the positive element of vocabulary retention with videos, the constituent features of VR were not mentioned in the study to stress on the beneficial elements of virtual reality which may help with the students’ vocabulary learning. It can be assumed that since the treatment involved viewing a video through a VR goggle, little or no interaction is required by the students, hence the lack in description on the learning aspects with VR. Evidently, the limited amounts of studies involving VR and language learning beckons further investigation into its potential, as technology evolves and offers new opportunities for combining it with language learning (Lloyd et al., 2017). Furthermore, the infancy of VR may be daunting and challenging for educators to carry out for students as the little is known about the effectiveness of its technology (Ludlow, 2015).. 22.

(32) 2.4 Summary of Chapter 2 In this chapter, discussion on research relevant to DGBLL, VR and vocabulary learning have been reviewed. The first section examines studies involving vocabulary acquisition through gaming, as well as research on text adventure and visual novel games in L2 learning. Albeit the rather small number of studies related to such game genres, the results reveal that visual novel games’ rich text and decision-making component elicits much interest from learners, which in turn benefits their language learning. However, most of the studies focus on the affective factors of students’ learning, with only one of the studies involving learning dummy words. In the second section, characteristics of VR were introduced to highlight its potential in language learning. Simulation, immersion, embodiment and interactivity were mentioned as characteristics which may be effective in creating real-life situations to carry out meaningful learning contexts (O’Brien & Levy, 2008). These VR elements showcase possible solutions to overcome limitations inherent in the classroom by creating an illusion of a situated environment which may lead to authentic learning, as well as heightening learners’ engagement in the task at hand. Studies involving VR in L2 learning environments suggest that the innovative features of VR had a positive impact in their learning. The promising results inspired the examination of this study on vocabulary learning with VR gaming, as few studies have probed on the effectiveness of its features for EFL learning (Alfadil, 2017; Madini & Alshakihi, 2017). Furthermore, albeit the limited studies, the advantages and benefits from previous studies in both visual novel games and VR beckons further investigation into their potential for EFL learning. Thus, such circumstances motivate this study to examine the effect of VR. 23.

(33) gaming on L2 learners’ vocabulary learning and retention, as well as their affective perception.. 24.

(34) CHAPTER THREE METHOD This chapter presents the research design of the study. The first section details the background information and distribution of the participants. The instruments used are introduced for the study in the second section. The third section delineates the data collection of the study. The procedure used to conduct the study is described in the fourth section. Finally, the method of data analysis is discussed. 3.1 Participants Participants in the present study consist of thirty Grade 12 students studying at a senior high school in New Taipei City. Their native language is Mandarin Chinese and have all received on average ten years of formal English education since elementary school. The participants were aged between 17 to 18 and none had experience studying abroad. According to their English teacher’s knowledge, the participants’ English proficiency level was all similar based on their English grades in the previous academic semester, demonstrating intermediate level of English proficiency. Participants were randomly assigned to either the VR group or the PC group. All participants have informed that they had experience playing digital games of some form, either on PC, console or mobile devices. For participants in the VR group, some have reported that they had no experience using a virtual reality headset, but are familiar with the concept of VR. Extra information was elaborated if participants had intention on understanding more of the core features of VR. All participation was voluntary and confidential, and participants were informed beforehand of experiencing possible discomfort when exposed to the immersive VR surroundings 25.

(35) (e.g. dizziness, aversion etc). In which case, withdrawal from the study was granted. Only those who have never played or have little knowledge of the game Angels and Demigods were invited to take part in this study, as this may alleviate any confounding effects with the learning of vocabulary from the game’s content.. 3.2 Instruments 3.2.1 Oculus Go The Oculus Go was employed in this study as a tool for the VR group in playing the game Angels and Demigods. This device is developed by Oculus in partnership with a large US mobile SoC (system on a chip) designer, Qualcomm, and Xiaomi, China's largest smartphone maker. Oculus Go is a standalone VR headset that also includes an orientation-tracked controller, which can be used to interact with apps and games on the device. The headset is lightweight and portable with built-in speakers which doesn’t require the user to use headphones (Oculus VR, 2017). Furthermore, the built-in display feature allows users to use the headset without the need in connecting it with a mobile device or PC, such as the previous Gear VR and Oculus Rift. This thus increases user mobility, portability and lowers the cost of expenses in operating with VR.. Figure 1. Oculus Go. Figure 2. Oculus Go controller. 26.

(36) The headset includes built-in sensors that detect rotational head movements which adjust accordingly to one’s view in the virtual environment. Users can interact with the 3D environment by turning and looking around in any direction, allowing the user’s body to be stationary in one place (Knapp, 2018). The Oculus Go controller is the main controlling device used to navigate in the virtual environment. It consists of a touchpad at the top of a handheld remote, a back and home button, and a trigger at the back of the remote. The controller helps administer the basic settings in the headset and also acts as a pointer in which one can manipulate objects and trigger actions in the VR. 3.2.2 Angels and Demigods (Virtual Novel Game) Angels and Demigods is a visual novel game that allows the player to interact with the in-game characters by selecting dialogue choices which alter the paths of the game’s storyline. The player views the setting in first person, enabling players to play as the protagonist who prompts interaction with the characters and environment to progress further in the game. The game’s plot begins with an opening to a scene of the solar system with a female narrator giving an introduction of the setting of the game to the player. The female narrator goes on to explain that humanity in the distant future has fallen into a great war with each other. This induced humanity to create genetically modified soldiers called “angels” to fight for them. The narrator reveals that she is one of the angels, and then the scene cuts to an image of a blue, circular surface. This time a male narrator can be heard, explaining that he had been put into deep sleep and that he was about to be “born” the second time. The voiceover details the experience of him being put into sleep, and how he could feel that his mind is. 27.

(37) telling him to break free through the light. As this was being told to the player, the scene shows two arms reach out towards the circular surface and rips an opening while another female voice can be heard saying “Angel, are you awake?” (See figure 3).. Figure 3. The protagonist breaking through his cell. The scene then changes to an enclosed room where people can be seen facing the player. As the player, you can now navigate using the red pointer to position towards the characters and a dialogue would forgo between the character and the player. The protagonist would be prompted to comment on the particular component which gives the player information and clues to understand the game better. It is then revealed that the player is playing as the male narrator, the protagonist of this game, and that he is an angel created in a facility called the Chapel. One of the characters, who is a doctor, explains to the player that he has been intentionally awakened to. 28.

(38) assist the facility with a mission (See figure 4). One of the angels, Ashley, has woken up abruptly and fled the facility, and the player has been bequeathed the mission to bring her back.. Figure 4. Protagonist at the facility talking with the NPC. During this segment, the player would be given two choice responses during the conversation, where the selected response would trigger a reply from the doctor. The information given by the doctor would be dependent on the response the player selects. Regardless of which response is chosen, the game would still progress into the next scene where the player meets the fugitive, Ashley (See figure 6).. 29.

(39) Figure 5. Background scene of the angel’s cell outside. This section is the core mission of the game, where the player holds a conversation with Ashley in a research lab to persuade her to go back to the facility. The player would have multiple opportunities to select what they believe is the best response in the dialogue with Ashley. This exchange would also reveal much information and background to each of the character’s intention and stance towards the facility. This portion of the game would lead the player to mainly two different scenarios depending on the chosen responses during the conversation. The first scenario would contribute to the player failing the game and dying, as Ashely refuses to return to the facility with the protagonist.. 30.

(40) Figure 6. Meeting Ashley and choosing a response in interacting with her. The multiple scenarios of the player dying would range from being killed by Ashley due to a disagreement or Ashley destroying the laboratory. If the player reaches this scenario, the game would automatically bring the player back to original save point of the game where the player receives another chance to select a different response to continue the game.. 31.

(41) Figure 7. Ashley attacking the protagonist. The second scenario would be the desired outcome of completion of the game, where Ashley breaks out of the laboratory while the protagonist follows suit. The conversation would be held then in the sky, where the player and Ashley discuss how they would both run away from the facility and be free to live their lives. The screen would appear with the words “to be continued” which signals the end of the game. The total runtime of the game is determined by the success rate of selecting the correct responses by the player, as well as accounting the time a player might hold off a conversation due to “exploring” their surroundings. For example, if one dies multiple times in the game, or if the player is thorough in observing the details and objects of the environment, the total time of completion would be longer than average. Since the first half of the game is fixed in delivering the necessary information to the player, one’s choices in the selected responses do not lead to the undesired outcome of. 32.

(42) a player dying. Therefore, if we assume that the player is successful in choosing 100% percent of the correct responses in the second half of the game, it would take roughly half an hour to complete the entire game.. Figure 8. Screen showing player that they failed. 3.2.2.1 VR-supported Gaming Condition Angels and Demigods is a Scifi VR visual novel game that is available on Steam and developed by 7 Keys Studios. Angels and Demigods can be downloaded on Steam (https://store.steampowered.com/app/503160/Angels__Demigods__SciFi_VR_Visual _Novel) and the Oculus store website (https://www.oculus.com/experiences/go/929409983853577/). The game supports most VR headsets in the market such as HTC Vive, Oculus Rift, Gear VR and Oculus Go.. 33.

(43) Different from traditional visual novel games, Angels and Demigods uniquely creates an immersive environment where the player interacts with the in-game characters by selecting dialogue choices which alter the paths of the game’s storyline. During the gameplay, a red pointer can be seen in the middle of the screen and moves in any direction according to the position in which the player’s head motions to. Captions can be seen along with the audio of the female voiceover. The player is also free to explore the room 360°, and upon viewing a certain object or non-player character (NPC) Angels and Demigods combines visual novel gaming with the immersive VR components which gives the players an authentic perspective from playing as the protagonist. The ability to navigate through head motion in virtually any direction gives the user a feeling of presence which captivates their senses to the environment they are interacting with. The game also includes authentic dialogues recorded by native speakers of English, allowing users the ability to engage in the target language interaction. In addition, the spatial audio in the game provides players the genuine experience of sensing the direction of a sound being played within the game. An example would be if an NPC was talking and the player’s head shifts away from the virtual character, the audio would decrease slightly in volume and the sound would only be heard in the ear of the player closest to the NPC. This simulates a realistic proximity effect which makes players feel like being in the same space as the virtual characters. This kind of simulated 3D environment has the potential to create an enhanced sense of realism, a greater sense of presence and greater level of interactivity (Dalgarno and Lee, 2010). A stronger sense of presence in turn motivates and causes users to cognitively process information and induce learning. The 34.

(44) aforementioned reasons are why the game Angels and Demigods is selected as it provides an interactive and immersive language learning platform, which offers comprehensible input and meaningful interaction.. 3.2.2.2 PC-supported Gaming Condition The PC version of Angels and Demigods is also freely available on Steam for download, while the content and storyline of this game remains identical to that of the VR-supported condition, features that were inherently created for the VR version cannot be experienced in the PC-supported condition. As the PC version would played on a computer/laptop screen, players would not be able to perceive the immersion and embodiment components that comes equipped in the VR version. The players are still able to explore their surroundings, although the images on screen would not provide the same sense of realism found in the VR version. Much like the VR-supported condition, a red pointer can be seen in the middle of the screen along with captions when characters speak. However, the game operates using the mouse of the computer, where the left-click button enables players to select responses when interacting with the NPC while the right-click button grants the player to drag and navigate the environment. 3.2.3 Target Words Angels and Demigods comprised 5,671 tokens in total. This includes all the scenarios and paths that may be possibly encountered if all are played out. All the words were manually scrutinized by the author and sorted into lists (see Table 1) by utilizing Vocabprofile, in Compleat Lexcial Tutor (Cobb, 2003).. 35.

(45) Table 1: Words Classification Word List 1-1000 (K1 Words) 1001-2000 (K2 Words) Academic Word List (AWL) Words Off-List Words Total. Tokens in the game 5089 197. Percent of words 89.74% 3.47%. 69. 1.22%. 316 5671. 5.57% 100%. For the selection of the target words used to evaluate the participants, Miller and Hegelheimer’s (2006) approach was adopted in this study. The words chosen are required to occur at minimum three times within the shortest path of the game. As higher frequency words are encountered by learners in a given context, the more plausible it is for them to learn the new vocabulary (Webb, 2008). A large number of the target words selected to be in the pre and post-test would belong in the categories of the Academic Word List (AWL) Words (N=4) and Off-List Words (N=15). The reason for this implementation is the assumption that students in Taiwan are already familiar with most of the words falling in the K1 and K2 category. Therefore, words that occurred more than three times but fall into categories outside of the AWL and Off-List Words were excluded, this includes articles (the, a, etc) as well. It should be noted that albeit understanding this notion, one target word falling in the K2 category would still be included as to obtain a fitting number of 20 target word list for convenient assessment for the researcher in this study. The final 20 target words were thus selected and compiled in Table 2, based on their raw frequency and categories in Vocabprofile. Furthermore, the target words were sorted into different presentations in Table 3 below, one being the category of 36.

(46) words that can be seen and associated with a clear image or picture of the specified word (e.g. chapel, solar) and the second category of words which appear in the text but are not accompanied with images appearing in the game (e.g. convince, expendable). This was done to investigate how participants were influenced by words with and without images, as well as the frequency of word occurrence from learning new vocabulary in the game.. Table 2: Target Word List (based on raw frequency of occurrences) No. Item. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20. chapel metamorphosis awakening undergo wombs solar genetic flee convince negotiate expendable disoriented trigger hatch hostage spontaneous sympathize cyborg rogue survival. Raw Frequency (Token) 24 13 8 6 6 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3. 37. Category (in Vocabprofile) Off-List Words Off-List Words Off-List Words AWL Words K2 Words Off-List Words Off-List Words Off-List Words AWL Words Off-List Words Off-List Words Off-List Words AWL Words Off-List Words Off-List Words Off-List Words Off-List Words Off-List Words Off-List Words AWL Words.

(47) Table 3: Presentation of Target Words Frequency. Media Words alone. Words with images. High. awakening. Frequency. chapel. (10 tokens or. metamorphosis. above) Moderate. undergo. womb. Frequency. genetic. solar. (4-9 tokens). flee. cyborg. convince negotiate. Low. expendable. hatch. Frequency. spontaneous. hostage. (below 4. sympathize. tokens). disoriented trigger rogue instinct. 3.3 Data Collection 3.3.1 Vocabulary Translation and Recognition Test The pre-test was conducted as a base-line in comparison to the immediate and delayed post-test to determine the participants’ knowledge on the vocabulary tested. Ten distractors were included along with the 20 target words in the pre-test in the form of a vocabulary translation and recognition test. Participants filled in the correct Mandarin Chinese translation to the English items in the translation test, while the. 38.