通過體育賽打造品牌和民族：印尼2018年舉行的亞運會 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 立. 治政碩士論文大. Master’s Thesis. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. 通過體育賽打造品牌和民族：印尼 2018 年舉行的亞運會. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Branding and Modern Nation through a Sport Event: the Asian Games 2018 in Indonesia. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Student: Winda Prisilia Lizar 李惠蓮 Advisor: Dr. Ting-Yu Kang 康庭瑜. 中華民國 108 年 7 月 July 2019. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(2) 通過體育賽打造品牌和民族：印尼 2018 年舉行的亞運會 Branding and Modern Nation through a Sport Event: the Asian Games 2018 in Indonesia. 研究生：李惠蓮. Student: Winda Prisilia Lizar. 指導教授：康庭瑜. Advisor: Dr. Ting-Yu Kang. 政治大. 立. 國立政治大學. ‧ 國. 學. 國際傳播英語碩士學位學程. ‧. 碩士論文. io. sit. y. Nat. er. A Thesis. n. a lto International Master’s Program Submitted in iv n. C. h eCommunication International n g c h i U Studies National Chengchi University. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國 108 年 7 月 July 2019. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. My warmest gratitude will be given to my advisor, Prof. Ting-yu Kang who has been very supportive patient in guiding the entire process of this thesis. My thesis would never be completed without her constructive feedback. Prof Hong-chi Shiau and Su-mei Wang as the examiners also provide a lot of meaningful input which builds up the whole of my thesis for the better. I would also thank my beloved IMICS friends and staffs for giving me positive energy and advice. 治政 distance, but through the role of my family’s prayers, my 大 overall thesis can just be accomplished 立. during my ups and downs doing this thesis. Last but not the least, although we are separated by. without any major constraints.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. i. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(4) ABSTRACT. Past research has delved into Africa and East Asia nation branding through sports event. However, only few of them discussed the nation branding attempts from the developing countries in South East Asia, especially Indonesia. Given the fact that Indonesia has been trying to get out from the negative image they obtain from corruption and bombing attacks by participating in the rally of modernity—higher classification of newly-industrialized country (NIC) (Rivett-Carnac, 2016; Transparency International, 2017), this video content analysis study examined promotional videos produced by government during the implementation of the Asian Games 2018 which is the second largest sports event after Olympic Games. This research will utilize the hexagon of nation branding concept from Simon Anholt (2007) which facilitates clear understanding of nation branding from the perspective of people, tourism, culture & heritage, governance, and product traits (export). Investment is not included in the analysis due to the fact that sports event promotional videos contain less content related to investment. This study analyzed promotional videos posted in the Asian Games 2018 official Youtube channel posted from January 26th 2017 until September 17th 2018. From the total of 14 created playlists and 197 videos posted in the channel, only 105 videos are taken as sample, considering the video contents has less connection to the concept of nation branding. Based on research question and literature review, xx codes have developed with the xx arising codes from the data. Results of this video content analysis showed that Indonesia government implied different kinds of strategies of nation branding. Sequentially, people, culture & heritage, tourism, governance, and product traits were emerged in the videos. In terms of people, government intended to pull out the image of supportive ordinary people (citizens/residents) the most instead of professional athletes or any other figures related to the event. It is parallel to the findings in the governance codes which mostly described the characteristic of liberal democracy system—freedom of expression. Meanwhile, in contrast with people and governance codes which presented attempts to be a more modern and developed country, government still firmly preserved the more international image of Indonesia in tourism and culture & heritage codes by featuring scenes of natural landscapes and local traditions/arts. In product traits codes, through the local-produced material, government presented a transitional image between traditional and modern image.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Keywords: nation branding, the Asian Games 2018, modern, sports event, video content analysis. ii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................................. i Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................ iii List of Figures and Tables................................................................................................................... v 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research Background ........................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Purposes ................................................................................................................ 6. 政治大. 1.3 Research Significance ........................................................................................................... 7. 立. 2. Literature Review....................................................................................................................... 8. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1 The Concept of Nation Branding ............................................................................................ 8 2.2 Competitive Identity ............................................................................................................... 11. ‧. 2.3 Mega Sport-Events and Its Benefits ....................................................................................... 13. y. Nat. io. sit. 2.3.1. Mega-Events as Public Relations ....................................................................... 14. n. al. er. 2.3.2. Mega-Events as Tools of Nation Building ......................................................... 15. i n U. v. 2.3.3. Mega-Sport Events as Tools of Image Crafting ................................................. 16. Ch. engchi. 2.4 Mega-Sport Events: A Critical Point of View ........................................................................ 19 2.5 Nation, Nationalism and Nationalist Positioning.................................................................... 21 2.6 Nationalism in Sports Event ................................................................................................... 25 2.7 Modernity in Indonesia .......................................................................................................... 27 3. Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 31 3.1 Data Collection ....................................................................................................................... 33 3.2 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 37 3.2.1. Coding instrument ........................................................................................................ 40 iii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(6) 3.2.2. Intercoder Reliability ................................................................................................... 41 4. Results ........................................................................................................................................ 42 4.1. People............................................................................................................................... 43 4.2. Culture and Heritage ........................................................................................................ 51 4.3. Tourism ............................................................................................................................. 56 4.4. Governance ....................................................................................................................... 60 4.5. Product Traits .................................................................................................................... 64. 治政大 5.1. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 67 立. 5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 67. 5.2. Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 70. ‧ 國. 學. References .............................................................................................................................................. 72. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. iv. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(7) LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES. FIGURES Figure 1. The Hexagon of Nation Branding .................................................................................................... 2 Figure 2. Differences of National Identity, National Branding, and Nation’s Image ...................................... 10 Figure 3. Result of Hexagon of Nation Branding in the Asian Games 2018 ......................................... 43 Figure 4. Percentage of Nation Branding codes (People) ......................................................................... 44. 治政大........................................................... 46 Asian Games Torch Relay (2018) 立. Figure 5. A portrait of Lely Sampoerno—silver medalist in Asian Games 1962 (2018) ..................... 45 Figure 6. Home of Flame 18. th. Figure 7. President of Indonesia delivered his speech during the countdown event of the. 18thAsian. ‧ 國. 學. Games (2018). ................................................................................................................................ 47. ‧. Figure 8. Retno Marsudi, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the 18thAsian Games 2018 Torch Relay Yogyakarta, Indonesia (2018) ...................................................................................................... 47. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Figure 9. Indonesia Nation Air Force assisted the arrival of the 18thAsian Games’ torch (2018) ............................................................................................................................................. 48. al. n. th. Ch. i n U. v. Figure 10. The 18 Asian Games Torch Relay in Bandar Lampung, Indonesia (2018) ...................... 49. engchi. Figure 11. Demam Asian Games - Adu Cepat Makan video posted by the official committee of the 18th Asian Games (2018) ........................................................................................................... 49 Figure 12. Nadine Chandrawinata (right) as the torchbearer in Raja Ampat, Indonesia (2018) ......... 50 Figure 13. Labors in struggle to finish the project of Athlete Village for the 18thAsian Games (2018) ........................................................................................................................................... 51 Figure 14. Percentage of Nation Branding codes (Culture & Heritage) ................................................ 52 Figure 15. Kecak dance performances in the Bali Torch Relay (2018) .................................................. 53. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(8) Figure 16. Local singers and band performed one of Indonesia pop song—Arti Sahabat (2018) ...... 54 Figure 17. Transitional dance performances in the countdown event of the 18th Asian Games......... 54 Figure 18. Mascots of the 18th Asian Games: Bhin Bhin, Atung, and Kaka (2018) ............................. 55 Figure 19. Hyoyeon of Girls Generation was performing her solo track “Mystery” (2018) ............... 56 Figure 20. Percentage of Nation Branding codes (Tourism) .................................................................... 56 Figure 21. Prambanan Temple, a historical monument in Yogyakarta, Indonesia (2018) ................... 57 Figure 22. Preview of Raja Ampat Island in the 18th Asian Games promotional video (2018) .......... 58. 治政大 (2018) ............................................................................................................................................ 59 立. Figure 23. A sneak peek of Baiturrahman Grand Mosque in the 18th Asian Games promotional video. Figure 24. Urban scenery shown in promotional videos of the 18th Asian Games (2018) ................... 59. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 25. Percentage of Nation Branding codes (Governance) ........................................................ 60. ‧. Figure 26. President of Indonesian Olympic Association—Erick Thohir (right) hold of the torch together with Secretary General Indian Olympic Association—Rajeev Mehta (left) ....... 61. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Figure 27. President of Indonesia (right) shook hands with the citizens who participated in countdown events of the 18th Asian Games (2018) .............................................................. 62. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Figure 28. Infrastructure renovation to welcome the 18th Asian Games (2018)................................. 63. engchi. Figure 29. Najwa Shihab delivered her rhyming messages about the 18th Asian Games (2018) ....... 63 Figure 30. Percentage of Nation Branding codes (Product Traits) ..................................................... 64 Figure 31. A list of Indonesian instant food and beverages product: Indomie, Pop Mie, Indomilk (left to right) were shown in the advertisement video of the 18th Asian Games (2018)............ 65 Figure 32. Sepak takraw game and the rattan ball (2018) .................................................................. 65 Figure 33. Indomilk Fun AR Game in the advertisement video of the 18th Asian Games (2018) ..... 66. vi. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(9) TABLES Table 1. List of Samples (Youtube videos) ......................................................................................... 36 Table 2. Code Scheme for Content Analysis of Youtube Videos ....................................................... 38 Table 3. Count and Percentage of Nation Branding codes (People)................................................... 44 Table 4. Count and Percentage of Nation Branding codes (Culture & Heritage).............................. 52 Table 5. Count and Percentage of Nation Branding codes (Tourism) ................................................ 57 Table 6. Count and Percentage of Nation Branding codes (Governance) .......................................... 60. 政治大. Table 7. Count and Percentage of Nation Branding codes (Product Traits) ....................................... 64. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. vii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(10) 1. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Research Background A ccording to Anholt—GfK Roper Nation Branding Index (2009), Indonesia as a nation. ranked 41th out of 50th country in its attempt to develop the country’s image. This result comes from the negative perceptions people have about Indonesia, especially China, Australia, and. 治政大the topic of poverty in Indonesia Most of the negative perceptions browsed from Google showed 立. United Kingdom which published more than 50% negative news about Indonesia (Prodjo, 2016).. which was caused by corruption. Transparency International (2017) showed that Indonesia has a. ‧ 國. 學. relatively high corruption index (37 out of 100), making Indonesia ranked 96th out of 180 countries. ‧. around the world. Other than corruption index, image of Indonesia is seen as being prone to terrorism due to bombing attacks (Rivett-Carnac, 2016), in which the latest terrorist attack. y. Nat. er. io. sit. happened in May 2017 when a group of terrorists, suspected to be the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) militant group mounted suicide bombs in Kampung Melayu bus station and cause. n. al. Ch. three deaths and ten injured (Oktavianus, 2018).. engchi. i n U. v. Apart from that, Indonesia is actually a country abounds with natural resources. Thus, in order to prevent the overshadowing negative perspectives, the need to repair this negative image is significantly necessary. The concept of branding has traditionally been associated with companies and their products or services, but nowadays it is also used in the shaping of reputations of nations (Marandu, et.al., 2012). The “nation branding” concept focuses on the underlying assumption that every nation is considered as a brand; either attained through its conscious effort or created by chance to articulate a new image for external consumption and to revive national pride at home. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(11) 2. (Kaneva & Popescu, 2011). Anholt (2007) used the terms “competitive identity” to replace “nation branding” with the thoughts that there must be always a fierce competition between countries to gain global prestige, influence, and means which can be observed from its country’s tourism, brands, people, culture, policy, and investment (called as Hexagon of Nation Branding). Tourism. People. Exports. 政治大. Governance. COMPETITIVE IDENTITY. 立. Investment. ‧ 國. 學. Culture and Heritage. ‧. Figure 1. The Hexagon of Nation branding (Anholt, 2008). y. Nat. io. sit. Compared to a company’s brand management which implements marketing and. n. al. er. promotion, a country should utilize more abstract and complex way supported with the. Ch. cooperation with the elements of country (Anholt, 2007).. engchi. i n U. v. Hosting a sport mega-event has increasingly been recognized as a powerful agent in the imaging, re-imaging and branding of cities and nations (Higham and Hinch, 2009). Berkowitz et al. (2007) were among a limited number to connect these impacts with the nation brand, stating that sport mega-events create “a great branding opportunity” for nations. Cornelissen (2008) suggested that the hosting of the mega-event was part of a larger national agenda for nation building as well as showcasing the state as a “global middle power”. The significance of sport mega-events to the nation is evidenced by its previous staging of a series of major and mega sport events that include the 1995 Rugby World Cup, the 1996 African. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(12) 3. Cup of Nations (football), the 2003 ICC Cricket World Cup, and so on. The Asian Games 2018, in this case, representing mega-sport events hosted by the nation so far. Proclaimed as “Energy of Asia” due to Asian Games’ newly assigned rotational hosting policy the following quotation from President of Indonesia states that one of its main objectives for hosting the event was to facilitate nation branding: “It could boost our name in the international community” (Cook, 2017). The 2018 Asian Games, officially known as the 18th Asian Games, XVIII Asiad, and. 治政 2018. For the first time, the Asian Games were co-hosted大 in two cities; the Indonesian capital 立. Jakarta–Palembang 2018, was a pan-Asian multi-sport event held from August 18th-September nd. 2. of Jakarta (which is hosting the Games for the first time since 1962), and Palembang, the capital. ‧ 國. 學. of the South Sumatera province. Events were held in and around the two cities, including venues. ‧. in Bandung and some places in the provinces of West Java and Banten. The opening ceremony was held right a day after Indonesia’s Independence Day (August 17th 1945). Both opening and. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. Jakarta, Indonesia.. sit. closing ceremonies of the Asian Games 2018 were held at Gelora Bung Karno Main Stadium,. Ch. i n U. v. All 45 members of Olympic Council of Asia with the total of 11.720 athletes participated in. engchi. 465 events (40 sport disciplines). Finance Minister of Indonesia disclosed the total cost for arranging this particular mega-sport event was approximately USD 3.2 billion, of which USD 2.4 billion being spent on infrastructure development associated with the games (Mahadeo, 2018). Such events may provide an opportunity to create or promote an image and also re-brand a nation (Anholt, 2007; Florek & Insch, 2011). For example, the Olympic Games have long been used to serve the imaging or re-imaging of places (Higham & Hinch, 2009). Florek & Insch (2011) cite the case of Sydney and the Olympic Games 2000 that accelerated the awareness of. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(13) 4. Australia as a destination by up to 10 years while they also cite the case of Germany's image being “softened and boosted” through the hosting of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Nadeau, O’Reilly, and Heslop (2013, p. 13) note the perceived nation brand benefits for emerging nations from hosting sport mega-events: “Many emerging nations have risked a great deal in betting that hosting of a mega-event can be a fast-track to world recognition and reputation enhancement, and there is considerable evidence that this bet has payoffs in positive impacts on country images and reputations as producers of products and as tourism destinations.”. 治政大 to increase the awareness, The high media profile of mega-events can be harnessed 立. prominence and standing of places as well as serve as an agent of change in terms of imagery. ‧ 國. 學. and place meaning (Chalip & Costa, 2005; Florek & Insch, 2011; Higham & Hinch, 2009). Sport. ‧. conveys an emotional and symbolic value that few other types of events can. Rein & Shields (2007) explain how sports stimulate an “emotional heat” between the participants and the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. audiences that can symbolize the energy, vigor, and strength of an emerging nation in ways that eco-branding, museums, and other cultural attractions, for example, cannot. Sport events also. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. offer the potential to build strong associations between specific people (participants and. engchi. spectators) and particular places (Higham & Hinch, 2009). Higham and Hinch (2009) also note the growing prominence of sport in terms of place identity and the potential for sports to offer 'authentic cultural experiences of place'. Indonesia as one of the newcomer in the race of modernity, following the path of first generation NIC (Newly Industrialized Country)—Singapore, Hongkong, Taiwan, and South Korea declared that reaching a continuously and fast-growing economic growth is the goal of most of ASEAN countries (Prozorovskii, 2016). So far, Indonesia has made significant. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(14) 5. modernization breakthrough in the 70-90-ies of the twentieth century which brought the country into a number of second-generation NICs with the help of colonialism in promoting and explaining modernity to backward parts of the globe. Holding a title as host country of the Asian Games in 1962 evidently brought up popularity to the country. At that time, Gelora Bung Karno stadium hall was the first international scale-stadium hall ever made by the first president of Indonesia—Soekarno and noted as the most majestic stadium hall in Asia and the second biggest in the world. However, after the 1997-1998 monetary crisis, economic position of Indonesia. 治政大 ranging from the struggle. weakened, and it took years to return to its previous level of development, yet at the same time it has to solve a lot of problems,. 立. against corruption and the. manifestations of separatism, to weakening inevitable growing imbalances in the course of. ‧ 國. 學. modernization. Therefore, by hosting the Asian Games 2018 might be the right momentum for. ‧. Indonesia to arise the modern image that had ever been a worldwide spotlight before. To be able to analyze past events, content analysis method will be used as the main method. y. Nat. er. io. sit. in the research. Content analysis is “the study of recorded human communication, such as books, websites, paintings, and laws (Babbie, 2016, p. 323). This study will employ a video content. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. analysis because video consists of additional types of information (e.g., audio sounds, human. engchi. speech, motion) beyond what one might find in pure still image data (Hauptmann, 2009). Video also allows us to present the problems right in front of us, to see and hear, show and experience the affective, non-verbal, and contextual elements of the phenomenon which minimizes the possibility of incomprehension or misunderstanding which may be found in narrative description (Kress, 2003). The video samples will be taken from the official Youtube channel managed by Indonesian Asian Games 2018 Organizing Commitee (INASGOC) formed by Indonesia government. Ever. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(15) 6. since 2005, Youtube has been popular as a rising campaign and political tool used by organizations and government (Emruli, Zejneli, & Agai, 2011). In Indonesia, there are particularly two active Youtube channel used by government as a medium to introduce and share what activities and achievements government has done during five years of leadership period— the Presidential Secretariat (originally “Sekretariat Presiden”) and Presiden Joko Widodo. Similar to those channels, during Joko Widodo’s leadership era, the Asian Games 2018 appointed as host country and a Youtube channel was set and managed by government to publish. 治政大 of the Asian Games 2018, it is By analyzing videos from official Youtube channel 立. frequent promotional and documentation of Asian Games 2018 event to both local and global messages.. possible to have deeper understanding of what kind of nation branding elements applied the most. ‧ 國. 學. by government. In addition, it also can bring over the result of modernity level that Indonesia. y. Nat. io. sit. Research Purposes. er. 1.2. ‧. government tried to present towards audiences.. This research attempts to analyze the nation branding elements applied by Indonesia. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. government through mega-sport events Asian Games 2018. First, video content analysis will be. engchi. executed to see how texts, audio, and visuals showed in the promotional material (logos, taglines, icons, symbols, official soundtracks, opening and closing ceremony, advertisement, teasers, etc) represent nation brand of Indonesia. After that, with Hexagon of Nation Branding as the main framework of this research, this study can also give an insight of which are the most representative aspects showed in the mega-sport event Asia Games 2018. The aspects emerged in the event later can sum up the main goal government put in to the intended public. This research. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(16) 7. will also analyze whether government succeeded or not in building a more positive yet modern image of the nation by hosting the Asian Games 2018.. 1.3. Research Significance With respect to theoretic significance, there are mainly two gaps identified in this study.. First, a review of literature shows that there have been numerous published articles about nation branding through mega-sport events but there is few, if any, research on nation branding of South. 治政 though sport events hosted by Africa amd Middle East (East大 Asia) countries (Knott, 2014; Knott 立. East Asia countries, especially Indonesia. Most of previous studies analyzed nation branding. & Fyall, 2017; Kobierecki & Strozek, 2017) The Asian Games 2018 has received a lot of public. ‧ 國. 學. attention; since it is the biggest sports event in Asia and second biggest after Olympic however it. ‧. was hosted by Indonesia as a developing country. Likewise, it has been 57 years passed since the first Asian Games hosting Indonesia has ever done in 1962. A lot of efforts will be put in the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. series of this event to grab people’s attention, to repair the negative perspective people had about the country, and at the same time to bring back the glory Indonesia brought in the Asian Games. n. al. 1962.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Second, previous study mostly utilizes questionnaire or online survey method to see the leveraging nation branding opportunities (Hakala, Lemmetyinen, & Kantola, 2013; Yee, 2009; Cristea, 2015) while in this research a video content analysis will be conducted to see both visual and textual messages delivered by the government of Indonesia through the sport games at the same time.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(17) 8. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW. 2.1 The Concept of Nation Branding A succinct and often quoted definition of a positive or successful brand is given by Doyle (1992), who suggests that ‘a successful brand is a name, symbol, design, or some combination, which identifies the “product” of a particular organization as having a sustainable differential. 治政大 and non-functional, which combination of characteristics and added values, both functional 立 advantage’. Macrae, Parkinson and Sheerman (1995) defines that a brand represents a unique. have taken on a relevant meaning that is inextricably linked to the brand, awareness of which. ‧ 國. 學. might be conscious or intuitive, while Aaker (1996) argues that a brand is a multidimensional. ‧. assortment of functional, emotional, relational and strategic elements that collectively generate a unique set of associations in the public mind. Every country has their own unique name and. y. Nat. er. io. sit. images in the mind of people internally (locals, governments) and externally (international stakeholders, tourists, etc), so a nation does have brands with or without any conscious efforts in. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. nation branding, as each country has a current image to its international audience, be it strong or. engchi. weak, clear or vague (Fan, 2006). So, simply said, nation brand is the total sum of all perceptions of a nation in the mind of international stakeholders which may contain some of the following elements: people, place, culture/language, history, food, fashion, famous faces (celebrities), global brands etc (Fan, 2010). Dinnie (2008) has presented that the original application of branding on a product has revolutionized to service branding and corporation branding and both service and corporation branding has in turn evolve into nation branding. Adapted from Balmer (2002), compared to. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(18) 9. corporate branding, the focus of nation branding is centered to the nation, managed by the country leader, delivered by the member of entire nation, while corporate branding focuses on the company, managed by the CEO, and delivered by the whole company staffs and members. However, still, both of them have similarities to one each other, which the attention and support comes from multiple stakeholders, it was accomplished for a long time horizon purpose, and use strategic manner to implement the branding. Some major definitions of the nation branding concept show significant differences in the. 治政大 To remold national identities (Olins, 1999) 立. focus and purpose or outcome of nation branding as shown below: 1.. 2. To enhance nation’s competitiveness (Anholt, 2007; Lee, 2009). ‧ 國. 學. 3. To embrace political, cultural, business, and sport activities (Jaffe and Nebenzahl,. ‧. 2001).. 4. To promote internal and external economic and political interests (Rendon, 2003;. y. Nat. io. sit. Szondi, 2007).. n. al. er. 5. To improve a nation’s image or reputation (Gudjosson, 2005; Fan, 2006, 2008b, 2009). Ch. i n U. v. Identity, image and reputation, though often used interchangeably, the three terms are, in. engchi. fact, different constructs. They all refer to mental associations generated by knowledge and past experience. Identity is about self perception. A nation’s identity refers to the essentially irrational psychological bond that binds fellow nationals together and which is supposed to constitute the essence of national identity. Image is what is projected to other while reputation is the feedback received from other (Whetten & Mackey, 2002). Image and reputation, which is the reciprocal of image, both are components of a symmetrical communications process between the nation (self) and its international stakeholders (other).. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(19) 10. The main concerns of nation branding are the image and reputation a nation have towards the world. A nation’s image is defined by the people outside the country; their perceptions are influenced by stereotyping, media coverage as well as personal experience. Similar to commercial brands in the marketing sector, a nation’s image can be repackaged, repositioned, and communicated in a professional way. The relationship between national identity, nation branding and nation’s image can be summarized as below:. 治政大 Branding, and Nation’s Image Figure 2. Differences of National Identity, National 立 (reproduced from Fan, 2010, p. 5) ‧ 國. 學. The origin of nation branding study can mostly be found from four different sources,. ‧. namely, country-of-origin (Papadoplous and Heslop, 2002), place or destination branding (Kotler, et al, 1993; Kotler and Gertner, 2002; Morgan, et al, 2002), and more recently, public diplomacy. y. Nat. io. sit. (van Ham, 2001; Melissen, 2005; Fan, 2008a), and national identity (Smith, 1991; Bond, et al,. n. al. er. 2001), and Lee (2009) which offers a good comprehensive review of the literature. Unlike the. Ch. i n U. v. studies on country-of-origin and place branding that have a clear focus on promoting specific. engchi. economic interests (export, tourism, or inward investment), nation branding focused on a country’s overall image on the international stage covering political, economic and cultural dimensions (Quelch and Jocz, 2004; Fan, 2006). The need for nations to manage their image has been widely acknowledged in the literature (Olins, 1999; O’Shaughnessy and Jackson, 2000; Kotler and Gertner, 2002; Morgan et al., 2002; Mihailovich, 2006; Avraham and Ketter, 2008; Hankinson, 2009). Country image has been essentially studied from a consumer perspective (Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009), nevertheless the domain of nation branding extends beyond a consumer, focusing more on. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(20) 11. tourism promotion (Yee, 2000; Ai.pop and Macovei, 2007; Laws et al., 2002; Dore and Crouch, 2003; Pike, 2005) to encompass additional functions for instance investment attraction (Capik, 2007; Cho et al., 2009; Arregle et al., 2009; Lee and Rugman, 2009), promotion of exports (Tesfom et al., 2004), and public diplomacy (Cowan and Cull, 2008; Fullerton et al., 2009). While in facts, governments may also cooperate with each other to develop supranational region brands (Dinnie et al., 2009), where the challenges of stakeholder coordination assume even greater dimensions.. 2.2 Competitive Identity. 立. 政治大. Simon Anholt (2007) has recently re-coined the concept of nation branding as. ‧ 國. 學. “competitive identity”, which is described as a new model for enhancing national. ‧. competitiveness using both public diplomacy and brand management. Nation branding (Anholt, 200) is not just about tourism but rather a collaborative effort of the various faculty, including. y. Nat. io. sit. the promotion of tourism, investment and trade, plus public and cultural diplomacy (Kahn,. n. al. er. 2006). For this reason, Anholt (2007) prefers to use the term “competitive identity” to “nation. Ch. i n U. v. branding” because managing the brand name of a country concerns the reputation of the nation,. engchi. and it involves the national identity, policies, and economics of competitiveness (Yee, 2000). Positioning acts as the starting point when a competitive identity of a nation is about to be built—the place which that nation holds in the collective mind of other nations. Positioning is conducted based on the existing link between the position held in the mind of customer and the position held in the market, compared with the competitors (Pop, 2000). At the same time, Simon Anholt (2002) asserts that, in order to create a fair, rounded, and attractive picture of a country in people’s minds, a balance must be maintained between the different elements.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(21) 12. Competitive identity differentiates one nation to another with its competitive advantage in the global market. The terms of “one world, one market” has been brought as the impact of globalization, in which create the system of because the easiness and efficiency of technology and information access people have nowadays. This fact leads to a more competitive market for tourists, consumers, investors, entrepreneurs, international sport events, international media, talent, and so on. A nation should be concerned because the reputation of a country becomes the integrity of the nation, generating trust from its existence in the world, and the respect earned. 政治大. from all of that. In essence, the brand identity of a place becomes the competitive identity of the nation.. 立. According to Anholt (2002), every nation has its own brand and a nation obtains their. ‧ 國. 學. brands from public opinion (Anholt, 2008). People usually conjure up an image or multiple. ‧. images when a country is being named. If you talk about France, people would think romance. If you talk about Thailand, people will think about their signature dish “Tom Yum Goong”. The. y. Nat. er. io. sit. perception varies from one to another because it highly depends on individual experience and/or association through either experience or media exposure (magazine, internet, word of mouth, or. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. the other medium). Products and services, corporations and even the country’s inhabitants contribute to the country’s image.. engchi. The brand image is synonymous to the country’s reputation (Anholt, 2008). A country with poor reputation (uncultured, backward, or even unsafe politically) find their marketing effort inefficient because the perception of the public opinion is low, therefore less likely to be chosen as a destination for vacation or business travel (Meeting, Incentives, Conventions & Exhibitions—MICE) while countries with positive reputation (culture, forward, and politically safe) gain easier entry to the global marketplace with doors open, trust gained, respect given. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(22) 13. along an expectation that quality and competence workers will be there to meet the needs (Yee, 2000). Anholt (2008) is recognized for Anholt—GfK Nation Brand Index (NBI) which categorized six different measurements about the global perception of a country. The nation brand is how others perceive a country. The NBI is a barometer of global opinion which represents the index of national brand power of the total of 50 developed and developing countries. An analytical ranking where 25,000 people were polled worldwide on their. 治政 tourist appeal of were completed to get this index. NBI 大 essentially measures the perception 立. perceptions of the cultural, political, commercial and human assets, investment potential and. individually in each of these categories with six categories, named as the “Nation Brands. ‧ 國. 學. Hexagon” or “Hexagon of Competitive Identity”. This index can be a useful and reliable tool to. ‧. help a country or nation find out what are people’s perception about its image. It also serves to evaluate if its image is consistent to the project image and if there is a gap between the image. y. Nat. n. er. io. al. sit. and the actual experience (Yee, 2000).. Ch. 2.3 Mega Sport-Events and Its Benefits. engchi. i n U. v. Mega-sport events must be held with the consideration of the benefits it will provide. Existing literature on mega-events provides several characteristics: 1) large-scale, 2) international, and 3) have the ability to capture global media attention and focus it on a specific area (Gold and Gold, 2008). Roche (2001) defines mega-events as "large-scale cultural events, which have a dramatic character, mass popular appeal and international significance" reappears in various literature reviews and proves to be the eminent view. Previous researches emphasize more on the tripartite model of sponsorship, exclusive broadcast rights, and merchandizing that has led the definition of mega-events as inherently capitalistic ventures (Manzenreiter, 2010).. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(23) 14. Mega-events are a product of 20th century globalization; as the world integrated, international events provided a venue through which this phenomenon could be expressed and internalized (Carroll, 2012). The spectacle of mega-events draws enormous attention to a specific city or nation who hosts the event, allowing it to gain the many perceived rewards. This, in turn, has led to a competitive bidding process to host the events and receive many tangible and intangible benefits (Carroll, 2012).. 治政大globalized have attracted both Nowadays, mega-events which are modernly 立. 1. Mega-Events as Public Relations. advertisers and public relations specialists. The ability to draw sponsors from the. ‧ 國. 學. international scene for instance Johnson & Johnson, Castrol, and McDonald as the main. ‧. global sponsors for World Cup 2014 is one aspect of the marketing power associated with mega-events. Kearns and Philo (2010) noted that new dimensions of global capital have. y. Nat. er. io. sit. allowed mega-events to become a form of "place marketing" that attracts development. Mega-events criticized as labeled a "showcase" in which they are spectacles for. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. either the elite and "hegemonic power or an attempt at public relations removed from. engchi. realistic challenges" (Hiller, 2000, p. 440). However, an offer by the South African city of Cape Town to host Olympic Games in 2004 proved how public relations have become coiled together with bids to host mega-events. Back in 2004, a public relations campaign with the slogan "If Cape Town Wins We All Win" was run all over the city by the elite sectors in the interest of convincing the South Africa population that hosting a sports event would be beneficial for whole country and as the result, an opinion poll afterwards find 80% of respondents to be in favor of the bid (Carroll, 2012).. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(24) 15. 2. Mega-Events as Tools of Nation Building The ability to use mega-events as public relations tools has expanded beyond merely marketing products to more political uses, including nation building. Nation building has been seen in various lights. Taylor and Kent (2009) define national identity as "the conscious identification of a group of people with shared national goals," but also note that even within one person, many identities can exist. A nation can be composed of people of various races, religions, or beliefs, but a central national identity allows for. 政治大. society as a whole to have a common memory is especially true when it comes to megasport events.. 立. National unity works in line with national identity and has been defined as "the. ‧ 國. 學. common ground that facilitates cooperative efforts for the benefit of the state" (Taylor &. ‧. Kent, 2009, p. 343). It supplements national identity by creating the cultural events and institutions through which the national identity is established. Both of national unity and. y. Nat. er. io. sit. identity are fundamental elements of nation building that can be controlled through "strategic communications management," or in another word, public relations.. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. National identity and unity concepts are palpably to the ability of mega-events to. engchi. affect change as public relations. The concept of national unity itself dictates that any sporting mega-event will probably become engrained in the nation’s collective memory and become a part of identification afterwards (Carroll, 2012). It can be seen through the 1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta. When there was tragedy happened attacking the whole nation, sports can also invoke "powerfully emotional shared experiences" that infuse themselves within the memory of even the most casual sports fans (Black & Van der Westhuizen, 2004).. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(25) 16. Until now, Americans still discuss the "Miracle on Ice" during the 1980 Lake Placid Winter Olympics likewise the black power salute at the 1968 Olympics by Tommie Smith and John Carlos is still remembered by the world (Carroll, 2012). The ability of mega-events to evoke memories based on their emotional significance plays a large role in shaping both national identity and national unity. Those ties between megaevents and nation building are not certainly intended, and often come as a direct consequence of their spectacle.. 治政大that in South Africa, some groups national unity or identity. Hiller (2000) acknowledges 立. However, some groups actively attempt to leverage the events as a force to instill. sought to make use of the Cape Town bid for "general civic and national interests in the. ‧ 國. 學. fight" against the inequalities established by apartheid. Unfortunately, not all groups seek. ‧. to use mega-events for such praiseworthy purposes. The government and elites in a nation can often use the glamour of sporting events to obscure the "perceived loss of the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. state's social responsibility" and hide the deficiencies of governance. As Horne and Manzenreiter (2010) note, a country will use mega-sport events for different reasons,. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. even often with fewer things to do with sports, including nation building. However, the. engchi. ability of mega-events to contribute to nation building outstrips the creation of national identity and unity, with the reason of its ability to affect the image of a nation. 3. Mega-Sport Events as Tools of Image Crafting Communications research into how public relations theory can be used in nation building has suggested the importance of relationship building with international publics (Carroll, 2012). A major aspect of this is the control of a nation's image. Boulding (1956, p. 64) claim that "the basic bond of any society, culture, subculture, or organization is a. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(26) 17. 'public image,'" supports the importance of image. This ties expressly with the idea of national identification, but goes a step further to denote the importance of being recognized internationally in what Boulding (1956) refers to as a "universe of discourse”. “Universe of discourse” suggests that a nation only exists in as much as it is recognized as a nation on the international stage. Even beyond recognition, however, it is still important to remain having a positive national image. According to Pratt (1985), if a country can demonstrate a positive, unified, and stable image, it is more likely to receive. 治政大which is a very rational reason of those who need international funding for development 立. monetary support. Therefore, image control becomes paramount to any nation, especially. why Indonesia were eager to replace Vietnam as the host country of Asian Games 2018. ‧ 國. 學. with the current state’s debt of 4.253 trillion rupiah (Kompas, 2018).. ‧. The capacity of mega-events to attract the eyes of the world has led many countries and cities to believe that mega-events are an opportunity to rebuild the image of. y. Nat. er. io. sit. the host country. Some countries, such as Japan and Germany, have used the Olympics as a way to seek "redemption" after their role in World War II (Short, 2008). Mega-events. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. have often been used as "catalysts for image creation," enabling countries to create new. engchi. identities in the eyes of global audiences (Lenskyj, 2002). However, as Short and Manzenreiter (2008) state, this is notoriously difficult to achieve. The Olympic Games in Atlanta in 1996 are both remembered for significant acts of terrorism; Mexico City in 1968 was the site of massive protests, while Mainland China's desire to be viewed as modern during the 2008 Summer Games may have been complicated by media attention on human rights abuses and its relationship with Tibet. Complexity also arises from attempts by the International Olympic Committee and FIFA to separate sports and. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(27) 18. politics. Rule 50 in the charter of the IOC attempts to prohibit political statements during the Games, but the success of this rule is highly debatable (Carroll, 2012). International stereotypes and misconceptions makes the change of nation’s image becomes difficult (Manzenreiter, 2010). In spite of this, some nations continue to use abstract ideas to dictate why they deserve to host mega-events. South Africa, which will be examined later, widely, utilized the ideas of "Africa's World Cup" and "PanAfricanism" to obtain the 2010 World Cup (Ngonyama, 2010). One reason this rhetoric. 治政大 would be able to internally rethat by hosting the 2000 Olympics, the city of Sydney 立 may continue is because of the belief that mega-events can unify nations. It was hoped. imagine popular collective emotion, thus promoting unity and lessening disparities and. ‧ 國. 學. dissension (Waitt, 2001; Wilson, 1996). Mainland China desired to use the 2008 Olympic. ‧. Games as a tool to promote centralized feelings of accomplishment, national unity, and more modern image of the nation (Manzenreiter, 2010; Polumbaum, 2003). Mega-events. y. Nat. er. io. sit. can later utilize this image to promote their national identity, making them a seemingly attractive proposition for nation building if the nation can avoid the dangers of portraying. n. al. a negative image.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Mega-events play a part in nation building because of the effects that such events can have on national identity, unity, and image. National identity and national unity can both be achieved separately or as a result of mega-events affecting national image. When a nation hosts a mega-sport events, the event enters into the collective consciousness of society to become a cultural memory that later can be a part of national identity. The belief about mega-events that can shift perceptions of a host nation has led to many countries using image-crafting rhetoric as a motivation to bid for mega-sport events.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(28) 19. Despite the fact that changing image is notoriously difficult to achieve, countries continue to compete to be the host country of the event, encouraged by the beliefs that they can portray the event as nation’s unification.. 2.4. Mega-Sport Events: A Critical Point of View There are numbers of criticisms and challenges linked with the benefits of nation. branding gained from the mega-sport events, which mostly emphasize the short-lived media. 治政大 sucking gigantic number. attention and minor control the stakeholders have over the image portrayed while the fact is mega-sport events has a role in. 立. of the public investment.. Panagiotopoulou’s (2012) case study of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games argues that although a. ‧ 國. 學. mega-event may be a “key moment in attracting the whole world’s attention”, the opportunity. ‧. doesn’t last long. He also raised a serious concern related to the longevity of the brand image benefits. After the successful delivery of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games, it was reported that. y. Nat. io. sit. the event “helped to re-brand Greece as a country” as “mythological and traditional images. n. al. er. combined with modern, dynamic design”. However, Panagiotopoulou (2012) claims those six. Ch. i n U. v. years after the event, Greece had lost any advantage, with the country currently in a “severe image crisis” (Knott & Fyall, 2017).. engchi. Gratton and Preuss (2008) further noted that the exposure of the event, the host city, and its culture depends much on the media institution represent the nation’s image, which means that most part of the nation branding attempts, cannot be controlled by only government. Thus, positive image effect for a host city or nation is not fully guaranteed. Fullerton and Holtzhausen (2012) concluded their study on South Africa by cautioning that, “No country should expect blanket improvement of its reputation among all citizens in all countries”. Some of negative. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(29) 20. incidences such as “a bomb attack, hooligans, organizational shortcomings or just bad weather” can anytime influence the image of the host nation. Sporting mega-events are also seen as focal points for social criticism and unrest because they provide internationally visible opportunities for critics to protest perceived inequalities, corruption or social injustice by “seizing the platform” that the events provide (Price, 2008). The criticism can variously be found in major public demonstrations, street art, graffiti, and/or popular literature in addition to news reporting, investigative journalism and opinion columns in. 政治大. both mainstream and alternative news media, depending on the social and political context that happened during the event.. 立. Scholars also generally cite two specific reasons why the benefits induced by a sports. ‧ 國. 學. mega-event are exaggerated (Matheson & Baade, 2004). First, the increase in direct spending. ‧. attributable to the games may be a “gross” as opposed to a “net” measure. Most economic impact studies estimate direct spending by simply summing all receipts associated with the event.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. However, spending on a mega-event displaces spending that would have occurred otherwise as local residents purchase tickets to the event rather than spend that money on other activities in. n. al. the local economy.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The second reason which economic impact may be exaggerated is the “crowding out” effect. A typical approach to measuring economic impact will identify a large number of visitors to a mega-event, but will fail to identify those regular visitors who are displaced. A fundamental shortcoming of economic impact studies pertains, therefore, not to information on spending for those who are included in a direct expenditure survey, but rather with the lack of information on the spending behavior for those who are not. For example, during the 2002 World Cup the number of European visitors to South Korea was higher than normal, but this increase was offset. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(30) 21. by a similar sized decrease in the usual tourists and business travelers from Japan who avoided World Cup hassles. The total number of foreign visitors to South Korea throughout the 1090 tournament was estimated at 460,000, a figure identical to the number of foreign visitors during the same period in the previous year (Matheson & Baade, 2004). Without neglecting the previous criticism towards the attempt of nation branding through mega-sports events, there has been increasing awareness of the brand-related benefits from hosting a sport mega-event with their hosting being a deliberate policy for many nations, most. 治政 events, explaining that an event provides a chance for 大 visitors to “carry out a gratifying 立. notably among emerging nations (Knott, Fyall, and Jones, 2015). The experiential nature of. experience with access to the local cultural scene” could be brought through mega-sport events. ‧ 國. 學. (Mendes et al., 2011, p. 371). Although this may be limited to the moment, its value remains as a. ‧. memory and contributes to the process of image formation for a nation (Mendes et al., 2011). y. Nat. er. io. sit. 2.5 Nation, Nationalism and Nationalist Positioning. To get a better understanding about branding in a domestic context, definitions of some. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. concepts that linked to nation are also important to acquaint with: nation, nationalism, and. engchi. nationalist. Nationalism is a motive and also a main ideology that a nationalist follows. Anthony Smith (2001) mentioned three common elements of the nationalist belief-system. The first one is a set of basic propositions which most nationalists adhere to. Secondly, there are some fundamental ideals which are present in every manifestation of nationalism, although in varying degrees. Thirdly, there is a range of cognate concepts that give more concrete meaning to the core abstractions of nationalism. However, nationalism may be seen not only as a belief-system, but also as a form of culture and type of religion. During the French Revolution, nationalists. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(31) 22. insisted on their national autonomy which involved a centralized economic, political territory, and a single public culture. Therefore, a kind of social and cultural unification of the members of the nation is what nationalists look for. Nationalism is an important element of the public sphere and constitutes to the construction of unity among and between different people (Glass, 2008). Sport can change the perception of nationalism and the creation of a national identity within a country and lead to an identification crisis within a society and different interpretations of nationalism can arise, which. 治政大 are different points of departure nationality and nationalism means is important to develop. There 立. might lead to tensions within them (Malcom, 2009). This is why an objective definition of what. and approaches to how nationality, nationalism and nation can be defined. Östman’s (2009). ‧ 國. 學. starting point, the theoretical framework of Stuart Hall, who has developed a theoretical. ‧. framework for defining a baseline for conducting empirical studies in social constructions argues that the theory by Jørgensen has a rather empirical, objective approach as well as it focuses more. y. Nat. io. sit. on social theory than on historical approaches. On the other hand, as it has been argued by other. n. al. er. researchers, a nation and nationality is based on people’s feelings and interpretations (Glass,. Ch. i n U. v. 2008; Malcom, 2009; Altvater, 2012). Therefore, a subjective definition can never truly reflect. engchi. the social reality. This is one of the reasons why defining the terms of nation, nationalist, and nationalism have never been an easy endeavor. One of the main problems is that any form of objective definition will fail at one point. This is due to the fact that there will be exceptions as well as exclusions in the definitions of these terms (Östman, 2009). This criticism of Östman (2009) can also be seen in connection with the continuing migration of people. The UK and Germany have an increasing amount of immigrants that are contributing to a change in the definition of what constitutes as English or German nationality (Malcom, 2009). As mentioned. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(32) 23. before, Östman (2009) utilizes the scholar Jørgensen for his definition of what constitutes a subjective understanding and interpretation of the term “nation”. According to Jørgensen (in Östman, 2009), you can divide the concept of nationality into three main aspects: nationscape, nation, and nationalism. The following explanations are mainly based on Östman’s (2009) definition of nationality. Jørgensen (in Östman, 2009) tries to define the concept of a nation by explaining it as a social construction mainly based on a common interpretation of culture. The term nation can be. 治政大 2012), guided on the ideas of a experienced social reality is, according to Stocker (in Altvater, 立. used as a reference to the experienced social reality by its members (Östman, 2009). This. common history, language, culture and other social constructions.. ‧ 國. 學. In addition, the nation is defined as an experienced reality by the individuals that. ‧. constitute it (Östman, 2009). The experience can include surpass of the differences between its individuals in order to strengthen the feeling of belonging. The nation is often regarded as a. y. Nat. io. sit. universal structure that is used to make a separation.. n. al. er. It is defined through a set of social qualities and “national” characteristics, such as. Ch. i n U. v. ethnicity, language, and culture (Östman, 2009). In addition, it is not possible for any individual. engchi. to not be a member of any nation. You can say that belonging to at least one nation is forced upon every person. A human being or a community is usually defined by its national belonging or its ethnicity. The nation is often equated with a country or state and its political or governmental structures (Östman, 2009). In comparison to this, the theorists Marschik und Alter (in Altvater, 2012) define the concept of a nation more as an effort or process by the population that is based on historical roots and the intention of everybody to continue the cohabitation.. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(33) 24. This aspect of a nation is very important in the understanding of the process of constructing and representing difference in media output (Hall, 1997). As described by Hall (1997) and Östman (2009), differentiation is not only based on geographical borders, it is more importantly based on differences in ideologies, historical events, and culture. These qualities of a nation are according to Hall (1997), Morgan (2009) and Östman (2009) reflected in media discourse by various scholars. Östman (2009) argues that the approach of Jørgensen sees the “national media culture” not as a “static entity”. In opposition to the. 治政 rather than institutions (Östman, 2009). In Stocker’s (in大 Altvater, 2012) perspective, it is 立 nationscape, the nation is rather defined according to the community that constitutes its existence. important to distinguish the institutionalized understanding and individual interpretation of what. ‧ 國. 學. defines a nation. However, in sport, the segregation between both of them are often blurred. ‧. (Altvater, 2012).. Stocker (in Altvater, 2012) describes nationscape as processes that have an effect on the. y. Nat. er. io. sit. emotional connection and the process of identification between institutions and individuals. According to Jørgensen (in Östman, 2009) the nationscape not only constitutes of institutions,. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. but also has a sociological meaning. This meaning is composed of historical knowledge,. engchi. common language, practices, norms, and value system. Stocker (in Altvater, 2012) rather assigns these attributes to the definition of a nation than to the institutions that form a nation. In summary, Östman’s (2009) definition of nationscape is based on the institutionalized construction of a nation. Nationalism can be seen as the process of establishing a hegemonic supremacy of one community or group over another (Östman, 2009). Following this logic, nationalism is the understanding of a nation’s members about its own construction, culture and ideology. Östman. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(34) 25. (2009) describes this as the corresponding practice between the concepts of nation and nationscape. He describes, “The dynamic process of establishing the nation through interventionist actions is, finally, what Jørgensen terms nationalism.” (Östman, 2009, p. 36) Nationalism is a tool to define difference by creating an inside and an outside. In other words, it creates a feeling of belonging to an “exclusive” group (Altvater, 2012). For Östman (2009), two points are important in regards to interpreting nationalism: (1) Nationalism can be related to ideologies and ideological approaches. These ideologies not. 治政大 or nation are neglected, but the nationscape. (2) Differences within the “imagined community” 立. necessarily distort the actual reality, because nations themselves exist through the construction of. similarities are highlighted. On the other hand, it is usual that differences between nations are. ‧ 國. 學. highlighted, while similarities with other nations are often downplayed.. ‧. In conclusion, nationalism is part of what is shaping the construction which defines the characteristics of nationality, but it is not limited to that (Östman, 2009). In this process it needs. y. Nat. er. io. sit. to be understood that positive or negative attributes are often dependent on various elements. For example, national stereotypes mostly use one of these attributes by intensifying its meaning. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. (Östman, 2009). In connection with this, symbols and stereotypes are an important way of. engchi. identifying a community as well as they create a distance to other groups (Altvater, 2012).. 2.6. Nationalism in Sports Event In connection with the previous definition, Bairner (1996) suggests that nationalist. positioning can be understood as an individual’s interpretation or feelings towards an “imagined community” or nation. This suggests that national identity defined as a product of shared geography or government, exceedingly a product of shared histories, myths, and ideologies. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(35) 26. (Allison, 2000). Through international sports event, where national teams or athletes represent their nations, evidence of the existence of a nation or “imagined community” is constructed (Bairner, 1996). This is why the relation between sport, moral understanding, and creation process of nations is especially important for ‘”new” or “young” nations (Morgan, 2000). The relationship between nationalism and sports is very strong because sport is often seen as manifestation of ideologies and the creation of national identities (Morgan, 2000). Brainer claims that “Not only providing opportunities for the expression of national solidarity, sport may also. 治政大 and sports needs the media to 2008, p. 1-2). However, the relationship between nationalism 立 represent one of the clearest and most tangible indications of a nation’s very existence” (in Glass,. construct this relation as an undeniable reality (Rowe, McKay, & Miller, 2002).. ‧ 國. 學. Rowe, McKay, and Miller (2002) stated that the close association between nationalism. ‧. and sports is the reason why sport is so powerful and easy to market. National identity is the most marketable product in sport mainly because when a sport event has a national appeal; it. y. Nat. er. io. sit. draws higher viewership and thus drawing attentions towards mass audiences (Allison, 2000). Journalists are often required to follow the nationalist positioning by the media institutions,. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. because they see it as a demand and driving factor for the loyalty of the audience (Rowe, McKay,. engchi. & Miller, 2002). This opinion is in line with the economic success of sports in general and also reflected by the power of different sports associations. In the general discourse on nationalism, we can see how sports may activate national sentiments and feelings, as they take on ritual forms. In this wise, sports serve as nodal symbols in nationalism of modern societies, by producing and, perhaps most important, activating the stories about who we are as members of countries. To conceptualize the result from this process, national pride which results from sports considered as one of way (Evans and Kelley 2002;. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(36) 27. Hilvoorde et al. 2010; Kavetsos 2012; Kavetsos and Szymanski 2010; Smith and Kim 2006). Being proud of national athletes’ successes represents an experience contributing to, and activating the feelings of sameness among people of particular countries, which is partly what common nationalism is all about (Billig, 1995).. 2.7.. Modernity in Indonesia Modernity is symbolically constructed by costly high tech ventures (Evers & Gerke, 1997). 治政大 been progressively rationalized whereby the organization of both the economy and society have 立 and evolved the influence of Euro-American culture while modernization defined as a process. (Professors World Peace Academy, 1981). In a fully rationalized economy, impersonal. ‧ 國. 學. calculation of profit and loss would eliminate all ethical (cultural values, norms, religious, etc). ‧. considerations. Where economic values are in conflict with religious or social values, the economic values will in the long run overwhelm all others. (Professors World Peace Academy,. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 1981).. Before entering the modern era, which was called as pre-modern era; regalities were. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. existed and held the hegemony in the realm of political and economic affairs in Indonesia.. engchi. Periodization of the pre-modern era was logically before the 15th century, although it cannot be clearly defined. In pre-modern era, systematic economic structure, regular systemic bookkeeping, and convincing division of labor had not been used. The almost impregnable position of western culture as the source of modernity is particularly evident in discussions on Southeast Asia because of the role of colonialism in shaping the region’s contemporary state. Even at the time, colonialism was often justified because it helped to promote and explain modernity to backward parts of the globe. In Indonesia,. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(37) 28. for example Anthony Reid defines early modern as the period in which Indonesian states interacted intensively with the rest of the world as part of a process global modernization and unification which involved commercialization, writing, linear views of time, and ceaseless technological changes. Indonesia has made significant modernization breakthrough in the 70-90-ies of the twentieth century which brought the country into a number of second-generation NICs (newly industrialized country). As one of the newcomer in the race of modernity, following the path of. 治政 continuously and fast-growing economic growth declared as大 the goals of mostly all of ASEAN 立. Singapore, Hongkong, Taiwan, and South Korea as the first generation NICs, reaching a. states, including Indonesia.. ‧ 國. 學. As a second generation NICs, Indonesia has showed its desire in order to obtain the label. ‧. of “modern” in the global perspective that may be seen from some successful attempts done by the country so far (Prozorovskii, 2016). First, the “New Order” governance led by Suharto, in. y. Nat. er. io. sit. which promotes an anti-communist orientation, succeeded to obtain enormous assistances of Western countries. The assistances (especially financial support) played a big role since back in. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. the 1960s, the economical status of Indonesia has reached its worst condition caused by the. engchi. chaos done by previous president—Soekarno who spent most of his time, struggling over the political rather than economical issues. Second, the government also tried to push both import substitution and export of raw materials (i.e. oil, gas, wood, etc.). The tropical climate and strategic archipelago geography in Indonesia support the richness of natural resources. In 2016, China stated that Indonesia is one of four biggest export destinations, after observing the value of export and import between two countries exceeded US$ 380 million (Kusuma, 2016). Third, by creating the economic policies which enable industrial conglomerates operating in a wide range. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(38) 29. of industries. One of the examples is PT. Bimantara Citra, which is engaged in the media industry. The founder of this company is Bambang Trihatmodjo, Suharto's third son. In 1989, PT Bimantara Citra founded RCTI (Rajawali Citra Televisi Indonesia) and in 2007, the company acquired MNC and changed its name to PT Global Mediacom which currently owns at least 3 national TV stations, 17 local TV stations, 22 radio stations, 1 newspaper outlet, and 4 magazines outlet (Kresna, 2018). Fourth, the attempts to modernize public language by introducing new anglicized terms.. 治政大was anglicized to turis (tourist), (Evers & Gerke, 1997). For instance, the word of “pariwisata” 立. It can be seen in how new political semantic were introduced in the new culture of modernity. “perkotaan” to urbanisasi (urbanization), and so on. The language of popular or emic sociology. ‧ 國. 學. was completely changed.. ‧. At last, the attempts from government to maintain political stability, ensured by the dominance of military and intelligence agencies which played a significant role in the home. y. Nat. er. io. sit. policy and, also, a kind of flexible personal policy of the president. The system of bureaucratic capitalism, which existed in the country, strengthened during the years of Suharto. Balancing. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. between the interests of different groups of military, political and business elite, Suharto for 32. engchi. years long (the longest period of service) kept the emerging conflicts in the “cold” condition. Therefore, gradually a large proportion of the Indonesian industry and finance concentrated in the hands of the president's relatives and his friends from the military, government officials, and Chinese entrepreneurs—often called as “Cendana” (translated: sandalwood) family. As a result, the success of modernization was too obviously intertwined with the welfare of the "family", and stability – with the preservation of an authoritarian regime. The monetary crisis happened in 1997–1998 not only weakened the economic position of Indonesia, but also led to the collapse of. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.

(39) 30. the Suharto’s "new order". It took almost ten years to return to its previous level of development. Democratic reforms and change of elites, which happened in this period, allowed to maintain the integrity of the country and gave an impetus to the transition from bureaucratic capitalism to oligarchic capitalism. However, the role of the state, in its renewed, more democratic forms, still stays significant in Indonesia. It has to solve a lot of problems, ranging from the struggle against corruption and the manifestations of separatism, to weakening inevitable growing imbalances in the course of modernization.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201900587.