持久性與情境性因素對第二語言溝通意願的影響：個案研究 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士班碩士論文. 指導教授：余明忠博士 Adviser：Dr. Yu, Ming-chung. 政治大持久性與情境性因素對第二語言溝通意願的影響：個案研究立. ‧ 國. 學. Enduring and Situational Factors that Influence. Willingness to Communicate in an L2: A Case Study. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 研究生：鄧禮賢撰 Name: Teng, Li-hsien 中華民國一百零九年七月 July, 2020 iii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. iv. i Un. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(3) Enduring and Situational Factors that Influence Willingness to Communicate in an L2: A Case Study. A Master Thesis. 學. ‧ 國. Presented治 to 政大立Department of English, National Chengchi University. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts. by Teng, Li-hsien July, 2020. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(4) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. vi. i Un. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(5) Acknowledgement During my pursuit of the TESOL M.A. degree at National Chengchi University, I have been inspired by many great teachers. In addition, the guidance of my Lord Jesus Christ, and the support from my wife and parents kept me going. Without the guidance from the Lord, the knowledge taught by the excellent professors, and the support and accompaniment from my family, it would be impossible for me to complete my master thesis. First, my deepest acknowledgements go to my thesis adviser, Dr. Yu, Ming-chung.. 政治大. Thanks to his encouragement and advice, I was able to work on my thesis persistently. His. 立. teaching and suggestions on research have helped me since my first year in this M.A.. ‧ 國. 學. program. His professional knowledge and attitude, and warm encouragement all helped. ‧. me a lot to complete my M.A. thesis.. Second, my warmest thanks go to the committee members, Dr. Yu, Hsueh-ying,. sit. y. Nat. io. were of great value for the completion of this thesis.. al. er. and Dr. Yeh, Chieh-yue, for their patient reading of my manuscript. Their suggestions. n. iv n C Third, I would like to give thanks beloved wife. Her kind encouragement, h e ton my gchi U. and emotional support kept me going, and her wise suggestions for my thesis presentation were significantly helpful for my thesis defense. Fourth, I would like to give thanks to my beloved mother. I was able to complete this thesis without worrying because of her patience and support. Last but not the least, I would like to dedicate this thesis to my Lord, Jesus Christ. His words, guidance and accompaniment along the way helped me complete this thesis. Because of my Lord, Jesus Christ, and my Heavenly Father, God, I was able to enroll in this excellent TESOL program, and got my M.A. degree. All glory to Him!. iii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS. Acknowledgements. iii. Table of Contents. iv. Chinese Abstract. xi. English Abstract. xiii. Chapter One: Introduction. 1. 1.0 Background of the Study. 1. 1.1 Statement of Problem. 立. 1.2 Purpose of the Study. 政治大. 2 4. ‧ 國. 學. 1.3 Significance of the Study. ‧. Chapter Two: Literature Review. 7. 2.1 The Theory of Willingness to Communicate. n. al. Ch. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 2.0 Introduction. 4. n U engchi. 2.1.1 The Origin of Willingness to Communicate. iv. 7 7 7. 2.1.2 Willingness to Communicate and the Heuristic Model. 8. 2.1.2.1 Enduring Variables Investigated in the Study. 9. 2.1.2.1 Situational Variables in the Heuristic Model. 11. 2.2 Situational Variables Investigated in the Present Study 2.2.1 Situational Cues. 13 13. 2.2.1.1 Interlocutors. 13. 2.2.1.2 Classroom Atmosphere. 14. 2.2.1.3 Tasks. 14. iv. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(7) 2.2.2 Situational Characteristics. 15. 2.2.2.1 Task-Confidence. 15. 2.2.2.2 Task-Interest. 16. 2.2.2.3 Task-Usefulness. 16. 2.3 Related Empirical Studies on Willingness to Communicate. 16. 2.4 Research Gap. 20. 2.5 Research Questions. 21. Chapter Three: Methodology. 23. 3.0 Introduction. 立. 3.1 The Participant. 23 24. ‧ 國. 學. 3.2 The Context. 政治大. 26. ‧. 3.3 Data Collection. 25. 3.3.1 Motivational Factors Questionnaire. Nat. sit. y. 26. io. 3.3.1.2 Validity. n. al. 27. er. 3.3.1.1 Reliability. Ch. n U engchi. 29. iv. 3.3.2 Class observation and Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories. 30. 3.3.3 Student Journals. 31. 3.3.4 Semi-Structured Interview with the ESL Teacher. 31. 3.3.5 Semi-Structured Interviews with the Participant. 31. 3.4 Data Analysis. 32. 3.4.1 Coding Scheme of Enduring Variables that Influence WTC. 32. 3.4.1.1 Intergroup Climate. 32. 3.4.1.2 Social Situation. 32. 3.4.1.3 Intergroup Attitudes. 33. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(8) 3.4.2 Coding Scheme of Situational Variables that Influence WTC. 33. 3.4.2.1 Situation Cues. 34. 3.4.2.2 Situation Characteristics. 36. Chapter Four: Results. 37. 4.0 Introduction. 37. 4.1 Class Participation and Academic Performance. 37. 4.2 Enduring Variables. 42. 4.2.1 Intergroup Climate. 42. 政治大. 4.2.1.1 Perceptual and Affective Correlates. 42. 4.2.1.2 Structural Characteristics of the Community. 44. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 4.2.2 Social Situation. ‧. 4.2.2.1 Most Willing to Communicate Situations 4.2.2.2 Least Willing to Communicate Situations. 47 47. Nat. sit. y. 55. io. er. 4.2.3 Intergroup Attitudes 4.2.3.1 Integrativeness. n. al. Ch. n U engchi. 4.2.3.2 Fear of Assimilation. 4.2.3.3 Motivation to Learn the L2 4.3 Situational Variables. iv. 56 56 58 59 62. 4.3.1 Situation Cues. 62. 4.3.1.1 Interlocutors. 62. 4.3.1.2 Classroom Atmosphere. 63. 4.3.1.3 Task. 66. 4.3.2 Situation Characteristics. 67. 4.3.2.1 Task-Confidence & Task-Interest. vi. 67. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(9) 4.3.2.2 Task-Usefulness. 68. Chapter Five: Discussion. 71. 5.0 Introduction. 71. 5.1 Themes of the Enduring Variables. 71. 5.1.1 Parental Involvement. 72. 5.1.2 Informal Linguistic Environment. 73. 5.1.3 Learner’s Core Beliefs. 74. 5.1.4 Summary of the Enduring Variables. 76. 政治大. 5.2 Themes of the Situational Variables. 立. 76. 5.2.1 Teaching Style and Teacher Immediacy. 77. ‧ 國. 學. 5.2.2 Class Size. ‧. 5.2.3 Topics. 5.2.4 Summary of the Situational Variables. 79 79. n. al. Ch. er. io. sit. y. Nat Chapter Six: Conclusions and Implications 6.0 Introduction. 78. n U engchi. iv. 81 81. 6.1 Summary of the Major Findings. 81. 6.2 Pedagogical Implications. 84. 6.3 Contribution of the Study. 86. 6.4 Limitations and Future Suggestions. 87. References. 89. Appendixes. 97. Appendix 1: Motivational Factors Questionnaire. 97. vii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(10) Appendix 2: Semi-structured Interview Questions with the Participant. 101. Appendix 3: Semi-structured Interview Questions with the ESL Teacher. 103. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. viii. i Un. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(11) LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Layer, Name of the Factors, Name of the Sub-factors, Number of Questions, and Total Number of Questions on the MFQ. 27. 3.2 Internal Consistency of the MFQ. 28. 3.3 Test-Retest Reliability of the MFQ. 29. 4.1 Total Number of Student Turns, Total Number of Walter’s Turns, Percentage of Walter’s Turns, Total Number of Students’ Self-initiated Turns, Total Number of Walter’s Self-initiated Turns, Percentage of Walter’s Self-initiated Turns 4.2 Exam 1, Exam 2, and Exam 3 scores of Walter, and the Class Average. 政治大. 38 41. 4.3 Walter’s First-time Answers, Second-time Answers, and the Average Scores to the. 立. Perceptual and Affective Correlate Questions. 43. ‧ 國. 學. 4.4 Walter’s first-time answers, second-time answers, and the average scores to the. ‧. Structural Characteristics of the Community questions 4.5 Most Willing to Communicate Situations- The Settings. 44. Nat. sit. y. 48. io. 4.7 Most Willing to Communicate Situations- The Purpose. n. al. Ch. er. 4.6 Most Willing to Communicate Situations- The Participants. n U engchi. 4.8 Least Willing to Communicate Situations. iv. 49 53 56. 4.9 Walter’s first-time answers, second-time answers, and the average scores to the Integrativeness questions. 57. 4.10 Walter’s first-time answers, second-time answers, and the average scores to the Fear of Assimilation questions. 59. 4.11 Walter’s first-time answers, second-time answers, and the average scores to the Motivation to Learn the L2 questions. 60. ix. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(12) LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC. 8. 4.1 Proportion of Teacher-initiated Talk Others Answered, Teacher-initiated Talk Walter Answered, Others-initiated Talk, Walter-initiated Talk, Teacher Talk Only, Silence or Writing. 39. 4.2. Record of Student-initiated Talk. 40. 4.3 Record of Students Answering the Teacher. 40. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. x. i Un. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(13) 國立政治大學英國語文學系碩士班碩士論文提要. 論文名稱：持久性與情境性因素對第二語言溝通意願的影響：個案研究指導教授：余明忠博士研究生：鄧禮賢論文提要內容：全球化使英語學習變得愈來愈重要，然而，讓學生在課堂上說英語對語言教. 政治大. 師來說仍是件不容易的事。研究顯示與西方的英語學習者相比，亞洲的英語學習者. 立. 在英語課上較為沉默寡言。過去的研究顯示由於考試導向文化的影響、缺乏信心、. ‧ 國. 學. 在表達意見上過於小心，以及害怕被負面評價等因素，許多亞洲的英語學習者不願. ‧. 意參與課堂討論活動。本研究的目的就是探討某些持久性與情境性因素如何增進一. Nat. io. sit. y. 位台灣高中生的第二語言溝通意願。此個案研究中使用量化及質性兩種研究方法，. n. al. er. 希望透過這兩種研究方法，完整地了解特定持久性因素及情境型因素對受試者溝通. Ch. i Un. v. 意願的影響。研究參與者是一位在新北市私立雙語高中就讀的十二年級高中生。在. engchi. 此研究中，研究者使用動機因子問卷、課堂觀察、學生日誌、一次與受試者教師的半結構式訪談，以及兩次與受試者的半結構式訪談來蒐集資料，研究者透過這些資料分析持久性與情境性因素如何影響受試者的英語溝通意願。結果顯示三項持久性因素，家長參與、非正式語言環境，以及學習者的核心信念都能影響他在不同情境中的英語溝通意願。在家長參與部分，本研究顯示不同方式的家長參與都對學習者的英語溝通意願有益，包含家長在家中與學習者一起看英語影片、與學習者進行英語對話，或是為學習者創造更多使用英語的環境。在非. xi. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(14) 正式語言環境部分，本研究顯示學習者在國外的旅遊，以及與其他英語為母語的線上遊戲玩家間的互動都提供他可以真實地使用英語的機會。在學習者的核心信念部分，本研究顯示學習者的英語學習核心信念會影響他在不同第二語言學習活動中的努力程度。在情境因素部分，本研究結果也顯示三項情境型因素，教師的教學風格與即時行為、班級大小，以及討論主題都會影響學習者的英語溝通意願。在教師的教學風格與即時行為部分，如果一位語言教師使用許多溝通式活動，並在學習者口語上犯錯時，可以即時地給予鼓勵與適度糾正，並不批評學習者的錯誤，這些行為皆可. 政治大. 提升學習者的英語溝通意願。在課堂大小部分，對一個語言教師來說，小型的課堂. 立. 比較容易創造出良好且溫暖的教室氛圍。在討論主題部分，學生自己選擇的主題要. ‧ 國. 學. 比教科書提供的主題要好，本研究顯示學生自己選擇的主題可以提升受試者對於討. ‧. 論的信心與興趣，並且提高受試者的英語溝通意願。基於本研究所得的結果，研究. Nat. io. sit. y. 者也提出了針對教學上的應用以及對未來研究的建議。研究者希望這份論文可以對. n. al. er. TESOL 領域中的研究者及教育者，提供一些關於持久性與情境性因素影響學習者. Ch. 英語溝通意願的一些了解及洞見。. engchi. i Un. v. 關鍵詞：第二語言溝通意願；持久性因素；情境性因素；個案研究. xii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(15) ABSTRACT Globalization makes English learning become more and more important. However, language teachers around the world still struggle to get learners to talk in English. Studies show that Asian English learners are more reticent when compared with Western English learners. Previous research shows that because of the influence of examination-oriented culture, lack of confidence, being too cautious at giving opinions, and fear of being negatively evaluated, many Asian English learners are unwilling to participate in discussions. The purpose of the present study was to investigate how certain enduring and. 政治大. situational variables enhanced the willingness to communicate of a high school student in. 立. Taiwan. In this case study, both quantitative and qualitative methods were adopted to. ‧ 國. 學. capture a holistic understanding of how certain enduring factors, and situational factors. ‧. influence the willingness to communicate of the participant. The participant was a twelfth grader who studied in a private bilingual high school in New Taipei City. In the present. y. Nat. er. io. sit. study, the motivational factors questionnaire, the class observations, the student’s journals, one semi-structured interview, and two semi-structured interviews were utilized. al. n. iv n C as data for the analyses of the influences and situational variables that h eofnenduring gchi U influence the willingness to communicate of the participant.. The results suggest that the three enduring factors, parental involvement, informal linguistic environments, and a learner’s core beliefs in L2 learning, can influence his willingness to communicate in different situations. In terms of parental involvement, the present case showed that different forms of parental involvement, including watching English videos with the participant, chatting with the participant in English, and creating opportunities for him to use English authentically, would enhance for his WTC. In terms of informal linguistic environments, the present study showed that the participant’s family. xiii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(16) trips in foreign countries, and his online-games provided him with good opportunities to use English authentically. In terms of a learner’s core beliefs, the present study showed that the participant’s core beliefs would influence how much efforts he wanted to put into different types of L2 learning activities. The results also suggest that situational variables, such as teachers’ teaching styles and immediacy, class size, and topics, might all influence the participant’s willingness to communicate. In terms of teachers’ teaching styles and immediacy, if a language teacher uses many communicative activities, and they are also warm and encouraging, as well as being non-critical when learners make mistakes, these would raise learners’ WTC. In. 政治大. terms of class size, a small class would be easier for a teacher to create good and warm. 立. classroom atmosphere. In terms of topics, students’ self-selected topics are preferable than. ‧ 國. 學. textbook-assigned topics. The present study showed that students’ self-selected topics. ‧. raised the participant’s confidence and interest in discussions. And they also raised his WTC. Based on the findings in the present study, pedagogical implications and. sit. y. Nat. io. er. suggestions were recommended for future research. It is hoped that this thesis can provide some insights into the study of enduring and situational variables that influence the. al. n. iv n C willingness to communicate of English learners and educators in the field h e n gforcresearchers hi U of TESOL.. Keywords: Willingness to communicate, enduring variables, situational variables, case study. xiv. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(17) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION. 1.0 Background of the Study Globalization has made learning an L2 become more and more important. Studies have shown that there are many advantages to people who can use an L2, such as better jobs, bilingual reading abilities (Nuttall, 1996), cognitive performance (Bialystok, 2001), and working memory abilities (Puric, Vuksanovic, & Chondrogianni, 2017). Since English is the common language for worldwide communication (Huang,. 政治大. 2016), and since it also associates with politically and economically powerful populations. 立. (Butler, 2015), many countries consider English the most important L2 for their citizens.. ‧ 國. 學. However, in L2 classrooms, language teachers still struggle to get learners to talk in the. ‧. target language (TL) (Yashima, MacIntyre, & Ikeda, 2018). Among the English learners around the world, Asian learners are considered more reticent when compared with their. sit. y. Nat. io. er. Western counterparts (Tsui, 1996). Much research has explored the reticence and passivity of Asian L2 learners (Cheng 2000; Flowerdew & Miller 1995; Huang 2018; Jing 2006;. al. n. iv n C Kumaravadivelu 2003, and Liu & Jackson Many of them studied reticent behaviors h e n2008). gchi U of Asian L2 learners, including unwillingness to participate in discussions (Cheng, 2000), unwillingness to ask questions (Cheng, 2000; Flowerdew & Miller, 1995), being too cautious at giving opinions (Cheng, 2000; Flowerdew & Miller 1995), low listening and speaking abilities (Cheng, 2000; Kumaravadivelu, 2003; Liu & Jackson 2008), lack of confidence (Kumaravadivelu, 2003), fear of being negatively evaluated (Liu & Jackson 2008), the influence of examination-oriented culture (Jing 2006), and learner resistance to English-medium instruction (Huang 2018). To study the reticence and passivity of Asian. 1. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(18) learners, many scholars applied the theory of willingness to communicate (WTC) in their studies. Willingness to communicate (WTC) was first developed in L1 communication by Burgoon, McCroskey, and Baer (Burgoon, 1976; McCroskey & Baer, 1985). In L1 communication, Burgoon (1976) found that WTC is affected mostly by enduring variables, such as a person’s personality traits, self-esteem, etc. Other scholars, including McCroskey and Baer (1985), MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei, and Noels (1998), think that a person's level of WTC is also affected by several situational variables, such as the feeling of that person, the degree of acquaintance between communicators, etc.. 政治大. The concept of WTC was then applied to L2 communication by MacIntyre and. 立. Charos (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996). According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and. ‧ 國. 學. Noels (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547), WTC in L2 is “readiness to enter into discourse at. ‧. a particular time with a specific person or persons, using an L2.” In 1998, MacIntyre and associates created the Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC (the Heuristic. sit. y. Nat. io. variables that might affect Asian learners’ WTC in L2.. n. al. Ch. engchi. er. Model) (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Since then, many scholars started studying different. i Un. v. 1.1 Statement of Problem Many researchers, such as Liu and Jackson (2008), Kang (2014), Peng and Woodrow (2010), Yashima (2002), MacIntyre, Baker, Clement, and Donovan (2003), and Yashima, MacIntyre, and Ikeda (2018), have conducted studies investigating different variables that may influence Asian learners’ WTC in L2. All the above studies chose participants in countries that used English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts, such as China and Japan. However, the participants in their studies were all university students. Studies on high school students in EFL contexts are comparatively rare.. 2. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(19) A few researchers studied the L2 WTC in different age groups, including elementary school students (Buckingham & Alpaslan, 2017), middle school and high school students (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000; MacIntyre, Baker, Clement, & Donovan, 2003; MacIntyre, Burns, & Jessome, 2011; Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide, & Shimizu, 2004), and adult learners (Derwing & Munro, 2013). In the four studies focusing on the WTC of middle and high school students, two focused on immersion students (MacIntyre et al., 2003; MacIntyre et al., 2011), one focused on the comparison between immersion and non-immersion programs (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000), and the other focused on finding the influence of international posture and study abroad experience on two groups of Japanese teenagers in Kyoto (Yashima et al., 2004).. 立. 政治大. From the above studies, it is obvious that most of the studies investigating middle or. ‧ 國. 學. high school students focused on immersion students or immersion programs, not on. ‧. ordinary students who study in public or private high schools in EFL contexts like Taiwan. The levels of English proficiency between immersion students and ordinary. sit. y. Nat. io. er. public or private high school students are very different. Immersion students usually possess much better English skills compared with ordinary public or private high school. al. n. iv n C students. In public or private high schools, main goals are to pass tests, exams, h e nstudents’ gchi U to get good grades, and to get into good universities afterward; therefore, they usually focus more on improving their vocabulary, grammar, reading and writing skills, and tend to be reticent and passive in oral communication activities in class. The other difference between immersion students and public or private high school students is the amount of English exposure. In public high schools, students usually get only five English classes, which are about four hours every week. In private bilingual high schools, most students have about nine hours of English class every week. Outside of their English classes, students usually do not need to use English to communicate with others. 3. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(20) since Taiwan is considered an EFL country. Nevertheless, in immersion schools, fifty to ninety percent of the instruction is carried out in the foreign language (Valdes, G., 1997). Yashima and associates’ study (Yashima et al., 2004) focused on the influences of international posture and study abroad experience on two groups of Japanese teenagers. Although the participants were high school students in this study, and the context was also in an EFL context, Yashima and associates’ study (Yashima et al., 2004) still only investigated WTC factors like international posture and study abroad experience. Since students in public or private high schools are the majority, it would be crucial for educators to find out what WTC factors make them willing or unwilling to communicate in language classes.. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 1.2 Purpose of the Study. ‧. As stated above, little research is available for examining the WTC of Asian high school students in EFL contexts. Research that investigated both enduring and situational. sit. y. Nat. io. er. variables influencing the WTC of high school students in EFL contexts is even rarer. The purpose of this study was to fill this gap by exploring how specific enduring and. al. n. iv n C situational variables may influence the WTC high school student in Taiwan. h e nofga private chi U 1.3 Significance of the Study The discovery of the present study would benefit high school English learners, educators, and researchers. High school English learners are usually more exam-oriented since they need to pass the General Scholastic Ability Test to go to the universities they desire. From the study, they may learn how certain WTC variables and learning beliefs may increase or decrease their WTC inside and outside of the class.. 4. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(21) Through the present study, English educators could understand WTC variables more, be more sensitive to their learners’ differences, create more suitable environments for communication in the classrooms, and enhance their learners’ WTC in class. Finally, researchers may understand the factors that influence a learner’s WTC more from the present study, which may be helpful for doing research in the TESOL field.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 5. i Un. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(22) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 6. i Un. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(23) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW. 2.0 Introduction This chapter introduces relevant theories and reviews of relevant empirical research. There are five parts in this chapter, including the introduction of WTC, the introduction of situational variables, relevant empirical research, research gap, and research questions. The first part introduces the theory of WTC. The second part introduces the several situational variables investigated by previous researchers. The third. 政治大. part reviews relevant empirical studies on enduring and situational variables in different. 立. contexts. The fourth part brings forth the research gap, and the final part introduces the. 2.1 The Theory of Willingness to Communicate. Nat 2.1.1 The Origin of Willingness to Communicate. al. er. io. sit. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. research questions.. n. iv n C When an individual has a chance the L2, the psychological processes in the h etonuse gchi U. individual often have the tendencies to approach or avoid. These tendencies that the individual feels are his WTC (MacIntyre, P.D., MacKinnon, S. P., & Clement, R., 2009). As stated in Chapter One, WTC was first developed in L1 communication by Burgoon, McCroskey, and Baer (Burgoon, 1976; McCroskey and Baer, 1985). And then it was applied to L2 communication by MacIntyre and Charos (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996). According to these scholars’ research (Burgoon, 1976; McCroskey & Baer, 1985; MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei, and Noels, 1998), a person's WTC is affected by his or her enduring and situational variables. Enduring variables are a person’s personality traits,. 7. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(24) self-esteem, etc., and situational variables are the feeling of that person, the degree of acquaintance between communicators in different situations, etc. According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547), WTC in L2 is “readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using an L2.” In 1998, MacIntyre and associates created the Heuristic Model for the theory of WTC (the Heuristic Model) (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547).. 2.1.2 Willingness to Communicate and the Heuristic Model In the Heuristic Model, there are twelve factors influencing a person’s WTC. The. 政治大. twelve factors are in Layer I to VI. Factors in Layer I, II, and III represent the situational. 立. variables on WTC in different situations. And Factors in Layer IV, V and VI represent the. ‧ 國. 學. enduring variables, which are long-term influences on a person’s WTC.. ‧. Figure 2.1: Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 8. i Un. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(25) 2.1.2.1 Enduring Variables Investigated in the Study At the bottom three layers of the pyramid model are Layer IV, V, and VI. There are eight enduring variables in this model. The variables investigated in the present study are reviewed in some detail. The first enduring variable investigated in the present study was intergroup climate. Intergroup climate relies on the structural characteristics of the community, and their perceptual and affective correlates (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Structural characteristics of the community are a person’s ethnic group’s attitude toward the L2. Perceptual and affective correlates relate to the feeling and attitude of a person. People with a positive attitude toward specific L2 speakers probably have positive. 政治大. interaction with them. However, people with a negative attitude probably have less. 立. positive interaction with those speakers (MacIntyre et al., 1998). The second enduring. ‧ 國. 學. variable investigated in the present study was intergroup attitudes. An individual’s. ‧. intergroup attitude has three aspects, integrativeness, fear of assimilation, and motivation to learn the L2 (MacIntyre et al., 1998). One of the important factors in L2 learning is. sit. y. Nat. io. er. integrativeness. According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547), integrativeness is “the positive attitude toward the L2 community and a. al. n. iv n C desire to affiliate with members of the A positive attitude toward the TL h L2 e ncommunity.” gchi U community would possibly lead to more interactions with the community (MacIntyre et al., 1998). The third enduring variable was fear of assimilation. Some L2 learners are fear of assimilating with the L2 groups. Fear of assimilation is the fear that one will lose his or her identification and involvement with the L1 community by acquiring the L2 (MacIntyre et al., 1998). According to Noels and Clement (1996), most of their 179 Chinese participants who live in Canada think that acculturation is exclusive. The participants were in two groups, one identifies themselves as more Canadian and less Chinese, and the other group identifies themselves as more Chinese and less Canadian.. 9. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(26) The first group involved in Canadian culture more, and more comfortable in using English, whereas the second group involved in Chinese culture more, and more comfortable in using Chinese. Thus, it is possible for L2 learners who have fear of assimilation to have less contact with the L2 speakers. The fourth enduring variable in the present study was motivation to learn the L2. According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (MacIntyre et al., 1998), good learning and L2 classroom experience would be helpful in developing a positive attitude toward the L2. The last enduring variable in the present study was social situation. A social situation is influenced by five factors, the participants, the setting, the purpose, the topic, and the channel of communication. 政治大. (MacIntyre et al., 1998). The participant variables are the speakers’ gender, age, social. 立. class, and other aspects of the relationship between the speakers (MacIntyre et al., 1998).. ‧ 國. 學. The setting is the place and time of communication. The purpose is to the goals or. ‧. intentions of the communication (MacIntyre et al., 1998). The familiarity of a topic would influence an interlocutor’s language confidence (Zuengler, 1993). Finally, the. sit. y. Nat. io. er. communication channel refers to the ways used for the communication (MacIntyre et al., 1998). It can be either speaking or writing. In the present study, only the speaking channel. n. al. was investigated.. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. There are other enduring variables in the Heuristic Model that were not investigated in the present research. In Layer IV, there is the variable of personality. According to Goldberg (1992), there are five global traits of personality. In Layer V, there is communicative competence. According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (MacIntyre et al., 1998), there are five competencies that form the communicative competence, linguistic competence, discourse competence, actional competence, sociocultural competence, and strategic competence. In Layer IV, there are interpersonal motivation, intergroup motivation and L2 self-confidence. Interpersonal motivation, and. 10. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(27) intergroup motivation are both driven by the communication purposes between interlocutors, including the purposes of control and affiliation (MacIntyre et al., 1998). L2 self-confidence is between the individual and the L2 language (MacIntyre et al., 1998). There are two factors in L2 self-confidence: the cognitive factor and the affective factor (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Overall, the factors in Layer VI to Layer IV are trait factors that individuals have little influence (MacIntyre et al., 2011).. 2.1.2.2 Situational Variables in the Heuristic Model. 政治大. At the top three layers of the Heuristic Model are Layer III, II, and I. In these. 立. layers, there are four situational factors for WTC. The situation factors in the Heuristic. ‧ 國. 學. Model were not investigated in the present study; therefore, they would only be. ‧. introduced briefly.. In Layer III, there are desire to communicate with a specific person, and state. sit. y. Nat. io. er. communicative self-confidence. Desire to communicate with a specific person has two factors, affiliation and control (MacIntyre et al., 1998), and state communicative self-. al. n. iv n C confidence is influenced by two sub-factors, perceived competence, and state anxiety h e n gstate chi U (MacIntyre et al., 1998). The situational factor in Layer II is willingness to communicate. Willingness to communicate is the readiness to enter conversation at a specific time with a specific person or persons, using the L2 (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Although the factor name in this layer is the same as the WTC in the name of the model, Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC, it does not mean that only this factor directly influences the WTC of a person. On the contrary, in the Heuristic Model, factors in Layer VI influence the factors in Layer V, factors in Layer V then influence the factors in Layer VI, factors in Layer IV. 11. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(28) then influence the factors in Layer III, factors in Layer III then influence the factor in Layer II, and lastly, the factor in Layer II then decides the actions chosen by the interlocutor. L2 use in Layer I means the L2 using behaviors, including speaking up in class, reading the L2 texts, watching L2 television, or using L2 in a job. L2 use here is not a factor in WTC. It is rather the result of the interaction between many different and related factors (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Overall, the situational variables and L2 using behaviors from Layer III to I only focus on the interlocutor, and the factor and the communicative behaviors in Layer II and. 政治大. I are not suitable for investigation in the present study. First, based on the authors. 立. (MacIntyre et al., 1998), willingness to communicate in Layer II is the decision-making. ‧ 國. 學. moment after all the factors in the bottom layers already influence upper layers. The. ‧. interlocutor would then decide whether he is willing or unwilling to communicate. Second, L2 use in Layer I is the communicative behaviors that a speaker chooses to. sit. y. Nat. io. er. behave, such as listening to music, speaking with an interlocutor, reading a novel or writing an essay. Therefore, it is not a factor that influences the WTC of a learner.. al. n. iv n C Moreover, the other two situational variables Model, desire to h e ningthecHeuristic hi U. communicate with a specific person, and state communicative self-confidence, only focus on the interlocutors, and not paying attention on other contextual factors, such as classroom atmosphere or task interest. Because of these limitations, the researcher used several other situational variables investigated by other researchers in the past, and reviewed by Zhang and associates (Zhang, J., Beckmann, N., & Beckmann, J., F. 2018) to be investigated in the present research.. 12. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(29) 2.2 Situational Variables The situational variables in Zhang and associates’ paper (Zhang et al., 2018) are situation cues, and situation characteristics.. 2.2.1 Situational Cues The term “situational cues” was first appeared in Rauthmann and associates’ study (Rauthmann, J. F., Gallardo-Pujol, D., Guillaume, E. M., Todd, E., Nave, C. S., Sherman, R. A., Ziegler, M., Jones, A. B., & Funder, D. C. 2014). According to Rauthmann and associates (Rauthmann et al., 2014), situational cues are physical or objective factors that. 政治大. are in the environment. They can be objectively measured and quantified. Situational cues. 立. include (a) who: persons and interactions; (b) where: spatial location; and (c) what:. ‧ 國. 學. objects, events, and activities. In Zhang and associates’ paper (Zhang et al., 2018), the. ‧. situational cues are interlocutors, classroom atmosphere, and tasks. In the present study, the terminology in Zhang and associates’ paper (Zhang et al., 2018) was used.. er. io. sit. y. Nat 2.2.1.1 Interlocutors. al. n. iv n C Interlocutors are the specific h people that peopleU e n g c h i communicate with. Different. characteristics of an interlocutor may influence a communicative situation. Familiarity, participation, cooperation, and demographic features of an interlocutor all influence a person’s WTC (Zhang et al., 2018). In terms of familiarity, students like to talk to people they are familiar with more than talking to strangers. In terms of participation and cooperation, according to Zhang, Beckmann, and Beckmann (2018), people like to communicate with those who are cooperative and actively participating in class discussions. Interlocutors who are cooperative, active, and familiar to the students can reduce their fear of speaking the L2 in class. In addition, the demographic features of an. 13. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(30) interlocutor can also influence a person’s WTC, such as ethnicity, L2 proficiency, gender, age, and appearance (Zhang et al., 2018).. 2.2.1.2 Classroom Atmosphere According to Zhang, Beckmann, and Beckmann (2018), classroom atmosphere is influenced by three factors, classmates, class size, and the teacher. In a classroom setting, if the classmates are actively engaged in the tasks, and willing to participate, they would enhance a learner’s WTC. Second, class size also influences a learner’s WTC. In a large class, a teacher would be more difficult to have close contact with each student, or form a. 政治大. relatively unified class. On the other hand, a small class provides the students with more. 立. direct interacting opportunities with the teacher. In terms of teacher, there are two sub-. ‧ 國. 學. factors that influence a learner’s WTC, teacher immediacy, and teaching style. Teacher. ‧. immediacy refers to teachers’ spoken words, and behaviors that shorten the distance, and strengthen the relationships with their students (Zhang et al., 2018). Lastly, a teacher’s. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. 2018).. sit. teaching style and classroom management also influence a learner’s WTC (Zhang et al.,. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 2.2.1.3 Tasks Tasks are the work that students are asked to do in class. Topic, type of activity, preparation time, and assessment are the four sub-factors that influence the tasks in class (Zhang et al., 2018). In terms of topics, students prefer topics that they are familiar with and interested in because these topics reduce the difficulty of the discussions, and enhance their WTC. In terms of types of activities, according to Zhang, Beckmann, and Beckmann (2018), many types of activities can enhance a learner’s WTC, including game-like communicative activities, group projects, group activities with three or four interlocutors,. 14. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(31) dyadic and whole-class activities, and monologues and dialogues. A group activity can reduce anxiety and offer opportunities for students to communicate and generate different perspectives (Zhang et al., 2018). In terms of preparation time, enough preparation time can increase students’ WTC because they have enough time to form opinions, and check the correctness of vocabulary and grammar (Zhang et al., 2018). In terms of assessment, whether an activity is assessed or not can possibly enhance or inhibit a learner’s WTC (Zhang et al., 2018).. 2.2.2 Situational Characteristics. 政治大. According to some scholars, situational characteristics are the psychological. 立. meanings of situations (Rauthmann, J. F., Sherman, R. A., & Funder, D. C., 2015). A. ‧ 國. 學. person processes situational information, and use it to describe the situation (Rauthmann. ‧. et al., 2015). In Zhang and associates’ paper (Zhang et al., 2018), there are three factors that influence a person’s situational characteristics, task-confidence, task-interest, and. sit. y. Nat. io. er. task-usefulness. Kang also investigated these three factors in his research (Kang, 2005); however, the names he used were different when compared with the terms used by Zhang. al. n. iv n C and associates (Zhang et al., 2018). In (2005), these three factors were hKang’s e n gresearch chi U. security, excitement, and responsibility, which are like task-confidence, task-interest, and task-usefulness respectively.. 2.2.2.1 Task-Confidence In the Heuristic Model, one situational factor in Layer III is state communicative self-confidence. According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 549), state communicative self-confidence is “a momentary feeling of confidence, which may be transient within a given situation.” In Zhang and associates’. 15. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(32) paper (Zhang et al., 2018), they narrowed the focus on the confidence of the learner towards a given task.. 2.2.2.2 Task-Interest Task-interest refers to the feeling of excitement and curiosity when a learner participates in a task (Zhang et al., 2018). In Kang’s study (2005), the researcher used the term “excitement.” The researcher found that the Korean participants were excited and interested in discussing topics that they had enough background knowledge or experience, such as their family, major, and Korean culture. When a learner is interested in a task, he. 政治大. or she would feel excited and curious. The learner probably would participate in the task. 立. more actively. However, if a task only makes the learner feel bored, this might inhibit his. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. or her WTC.. 2.2.2.3 Task-Usefulness. sit. y. Nat. io. er. Sometimes, even a task is boring to some students, they are still willing to participate in the task because they can sense the usefulness of the task (Zhang et al.,. al. n. iv n C 2018). Task-usefulness is related to learner In Kang’s study (2005), the h eresponsibility. ngchi U researcher found that when the participants perceived that the tasks they were doing were useful and important for them, they would be more responsible to participate in the tasks.. 2.3 Related Empirical Studies on Willingness to Communicate Among the studies conducted to investigate students’ enduring and/ or situational WTC in different contexts, Peng and Woodrow (2010) did a large-scale investigation on WTC of a group of Chinese tertiary level EFL learners. They investigated the WTC, communication confidence, motivation, learner beliefs, and classroom environment of. 16. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(33) nine hundred and nine students in the two phases of the study. They found that classroom environment can predict WTC, communicative confidence, learner beliefs, and motivation. Also, it was found that motivation could influence a learner’s confidence, and the confidence could influence his WTC. Liu and Jackson (2008) investigated the foreign language anxiety and unwillingness to communicate (UnWTC) of five hundred forty-seven Chinese nonEnglish major freshmen in Mainland China. They used several questionnaires measuring the participants’ English learning background, and levels of UnWTC, language class risk taking, language class sociability, and foreign language anxiety. They had three findings. 政治大. in their study. First, they found that most participants were willing to talk, but not willing. 立. to risk using English in class. Second, they found that more than one-third of the. ‧ 國. 學. participants feared being negatively evaluated, and worried about public speaking and. language proficiency correlated significantly.. Nat. sit. y. ‧. tests. Third, they also found that UnWTC, foreign language anxiety, and self-rated. io. er. Yashima (2002) investigated the influence of L2 proficiency, motivation, L2 communication confidence, and international posture on L2 communication of two. al. n. iv n C hundred ninety-seven Japanese university in his research. There were three h e nfreshmen gchi U findings in her research. First, international posture indirectly influences English proficiency through affecting motivation. Second, motivation also influences WTC indirectly through influencing self-confidence. Third, international posture influences a person’s L2 WTC significantly. The authors above used quantitative methods in their studies, whereas MacIntyre and associates (MacIntyre et al., 2011) added a qualitative method, student journal, in their study. In MacIntyre and associates’ (MacIntyre et al., 2011) study, one hundred French immersion students from grade seven to nine wrote situations in which they were. 17. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(34) most willing to communicate (MWTC) in French, and situations they were least willing to communicate (LWTC) in French daily. The author got two hundred forty-one MWTC entries, and one hundred seventy-nine LWTC entries. From MacIntyre and associates’ (MacIntyre et al., 2011) study, they found that the participants were most willing to talk to their teachers, family members, and classmates. Their favorite places for using the L2 were the classrooms and home. Excluding others, doing class projects, and showing off were the tasks that they were most willing to use the L2. Excluding others means that the interlocutors use the same language to communicate, whereas the people around them cannot understand since they don’t understand the language.. 立. 政治大. Nematizendah and Wood (2017) investigated four adult learners from age thirty to. ‧ 國. 學. thirty-five in their study. They investigated their WTC and speech fluency through the. ‧. theories of WTC and Complex Dynamic System Theory (CDST). There are four findings in their study. First, they found that when the participants’ WTC was high, their speeches. sit. y. Nat. io. er. were fluent, and when the WTC was low, their speeches were short and fragmented. Second, they found that when their participants noticed their dysfluent speeches, their. al. n. iv n C WTC became low. Third, sometimes, even low WTC, the participants still could h ewith ngchi U produce fluent speeches through formulaic patterns. Finally, the authors discovered that when the participants were hesitated to choose the correct grammar to use, even with high WTC, they would still produce dysfluent sentences. Yashima and associates (Yashima et al., 2018) investigated both enduring and situational variables influencing the WTC of a group of Japanese tertiary level EFL learners in a university. There were two phases in the study. In phase one, they investigated twenty-one participants through the WTC questionnaires, class observation, and reflection sheets. They found that the participants’ anxiety for L2 communication fell. 18. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(35) gradually throughout the semester. And the repetition of the same discussion task could also reduce the students’ language anxiety. The researchers then picked three participants who had almost identical TOEFL scores, but showed very different communicative behaviors in the study, to be their case study participants in phase two. The first student, Taki, talked a lot, the second student, Nachi, talked occasionally, and the third student, Oto, stayed mostly silent in class throughout the semester. The authors did semi-structured stimulated recall interviews with the three participants to find out the causes of their behaviors. There are several findings from the interviews. First, they found that high WTC in L1 could not be transferred to L2. Second, they found that when other classmates talked. 政治大. fluently, one participant would find it easier for her to join the discussions, while another. 立. felt stressful, and stayed quiet most of the time. The authors concluded that through the. ‧ 國. 學. lens of CDST, they could see how the interplay of personalities, L2 proficiency,. ‧. preparation, and the context all shaped and reshaped the participants’ behaviors. In Zhong’s multiple-case-study research (2013), she investigated five Chinese. sit. y. Nat. io. er. students in a language school in New Zealand for eighteen weeks. The methods she used were semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, stimulated recall and learning. al. n. iv n C logs. There are several findings in her the participants in the study preferred hstudy. e n gFirst, chi U collaborative activities rather than teacher-led activities. Second, in teacher-fronted situations, concerns for accuracy, fear of losing face, and fear or being negatively evaluated, all hindered the participants’ WTC. Third, in collaborative activities, all the participants’ oral participation improved. Fourth, all the participants viewed the collaborative activities to be a process of sharing with other classmates. Finally, all the participants made full use of the collaborative activities to practice their communication skills.. 19. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(36) In 2019, Cao and Wei used Macau as a case investigating sixty-two first-year and second-year university students (Cao & Wei, 2019). The purpose of their study was to investigate the WTC from an English as an international language perspective. The method they used was semi-structured interview. In their study, they found that the participants could identify different English varieties, such as American English, British English, and Chinese style English. They also found that the participants were willing to use Chinese style of English inside and outside of the classrooms with speakers whose L1 were also Mandarin Chinese.. 2.4 Research Gap. 立. 政治大. From the above studies, we could see that most researchers did their studies with. ‧ 國. 學. university students, and only a few researchers did their research on high school students.. ‧. In the few studies focusing on high school students, even fewer studies were available for examining both enduring and situational variables influencing the WTC of high school. sit. y. Nat. io. er. students in non-immersion contexts. In addition to that, most studies focused on more than two participants. None of the studies that the researcher found focused on one participant. al. n. iv n C as a single case. Therefore, the main objective study was to explore how specific h e nofgthis chi U. enduring and situation variables may influence the WTC of the participant. The methods used in this study were adapted from Yashima et al.’s, and Macintyre et al.’s studies (Yashima et al., 2018; MacIntyre et al., 2011). Although the methods in this study were similar to the methods used in Yashima et al.’s, and MacIntyre et al.’s studies, there were still many differences in terms of the participants, contexts, and methodologies in these studies. First, in Yashima et al.’s, and MacIntyre et al.’s studies, the participants were tertiary level students and one hundred junior high school students in a French immersion program. In the present study, the participant was one senior high student in a private. 20. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(37) bilingual school in Taiwan. Although Taiwan and Japan can both be considered EFL countries, in the present study, the student in the bilingual school had many native English speaker teachers (NESTs); therefore, the participant might have more opportunities to use English when compared with the participants in Yashima et al.’s study. However, when compared with the junior high school students in the French immersion program in MacIntyre et al.’s study (2011), the participant in the present study had much fewer opportunities using the L2 in the bilingual school. Second, in the present study, the participant was a grade twelve student. However, in Yashima et al.’s, and MacIntyre et al.’s study, the participants were tertiary level and junior high school students. Yahima et. 政治大. al. (2018) also studied both enduring and situational variables influencing WTC in their. 立. study; however, their participants were university students, whereas ours was a senior. ‧ 國. 學. high school student. Senior high school students need to face the college entrance exams. ‧. in Taiwan; therefore, they might be more test-oriented in terms of English learning. Finding what makes them willing or unwilling to communicate would be crucial for all. sit. y. Nat. io. er. the students at this stage. As stated above, little research is available for examining both enduring and situational variables that influence the WTC of high school students in non-. al. n. iv n C immersion contexts. Therefore, this study to fill the gap by investigating the h e nintended gchi U WTC of a high school student in a bilingual school in Taiwan. The following lists research questions of the study.. 2.5 Research Questions 1.. How did some enduring factors enhance the WTC of the participant in the study?. 2.. How did some situational factors enhance the WTC of the participant in the study?. 21. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(38) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 22. i Un. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(39) CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction The aim of this research was to explore how certain enduring and situational variables enhanced the WTC of a high school student in a bilingual school in Taiwan. A case study method was implemented to serve the purpose of this study. According to Robert E. Stake’s The Art of Case Study Research (1995, p. xi), case study is to study the uniqueness and complexity of a single case, so the researchers could know its activity within specific circumstances. In the present study, the participant was a grade twelve. 政治大. student who had been studying English in his current bilingual school for more than ten. 立. years. The amount of vocabulary and knowledge of syntax of the participant was still low. ‧ 國. 學. and poor. He only passed the beginner level of General English Proficiency Test (GEPT),. ‧. and his grade was the lowest in his class. However, from some of his teachers’ opinions, this student was highly interested in communicating with his teachers in English inside. sit. y. Nat. io. er. and outside the classroom. This student can be viewed as a unique case since some scholars believe that language should be learnt through meaningful interactions and. al. n. iv n C communications (Gass, 2018; Yu, 2015). The participant should be able to learn English hen gchi U well since he seemed to be eager to use English inside and outside the classroom according to some of his teachers. A detailed study of the complexity of him can be qualified as a case study. By using this method, this research should provide detailed and complex information regarding this unique case. The section was sub-divided into four sub-sections, including the participant, the context, the instruments for data collection, and data analysis.. 23. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(40) 3.1 The Participant According to the characteristics of qualitative research, a case should be selected purposefully (Stake, 1995). Because a case study is to study the uniqueness and complexity of a case, it would be important to select the case that is unique and complex enough, so the participant should provide maximum learning opportunities (Stake, 1995). However, since any researchers’ time is always limited, we also need to find cases that are hospitable to our research (Stake, 1995). The participant in the study was a seventeen-year-old student in a private high school. The participant’s name, Walter, was pseudonymous to protect his real identities.. 政治大. The school was in a suburban area in New Taipei City, Taiwan. The participant was. 立. selected based on the two following reasons.. ‧ 國. 學. First, the participant in this case study should be unique enough so he can be. ‧. considered a case. The participant, Walter, had already been in this private bilingual school for more than ten years. According to some of Walter’s teachers, Walter was open-. sit. y. Nat. io. er. minded, and willing to use English to communicate with his classmates and them. However, even with his high WTC attitude and frequent communicative behaviors in. al. n. iv n C English, his English grade was still the lowest class.U h e ninghisc h i Walter failed his English in grade eleven. So far, he only passed the beginner level of GEPT, whereas some of his classmates had already passed the intermediate level of GEPT. Walter could be considered a case because his WTC attitude and frequent communicative behaviors did not help him much in terms of English learning in class. According to some scholars (Gass, 2018; Yu, 2015), meaningful interactions and communication are the two important factors for successful language learners. However, in Walter’s case, his WTC attitude and communicative actions did not help him much in English learning.. 24. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(41) In addition, Walter’s high WTC attitude seemed to be quite unique when compared with learners who were also in EFL contexts. According to some scholars, Asian English learners are more reticent and unwilling to communicate in class due to several reasons, such as foreign language anxiety and fear of being negatively evaluated (Liu & Jackson, 2008), cautiousness (Flowerdew & Miller 1995), and an examinationoriented culture (Jing, 2006). Nevertheless, the participant, Walter, still possessed high WTC in class. Understanding what specific enduring and situational variables make him willing to use English would be beneficial for English learners and educators in EFL contexts.. 政治大. Second, (the) participants in case studies should provide maximum learning. 立. opportunities (Stake, 1995) for the researcher. As stated above, Walter’s uniqueness. ‧ 國. 學. provides a good learning opportunity for researchers because when compared with most. ‧. senior high school students who were more reticent in class, Walter’s high WTC attitude was unique. Through a detailed study of Walter, the rich information and maximum. sit. y. Nat. io. understand how to enhance the WTC of language learners.. n. al. Ch. engchi. er. learning opportunities that he provided can help language teachers and researchers. i Un. v. 3.2 The Context The present study was conducted in a bilingual school in New Taipei City in Taiwan. The research site was chosen because of its bilingual environment for students to communicate in English. The school had about sixty foreign teachers from all over the world. High school students in the school had five regular English sessions taught by local English teachers, and five English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) sessions taught by foreign English teachers every week. The foreign teachers were full-time teachers; therefore, students in the school could encounter them easily in hallways or teachers’. 25. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(42) offices. Communicative opportunities often occurred when the students encountered the teachers in the school. Baker and MacIntyre (2000) found that immersion programs offer more opportunities for students to use the L2; therefore, the opportunities enhance the students’ language abilities. Although the school in the present study was not an immersion school, students in this school could still encounter foreign teachers, and communicate with them easily. It would be possible to say that this bilingual school offered a semi-immersion environment for the students within. Finally, private bilingual schools had become quite popular in Taiwan. Understanding this group of students was significant for English educators, and the findings could be useful for learners who were in similar contexts.. ‧ 國. 學. 3.3 Data Collection. 立. 政治大. ‧. In this study, data were collected through several ways, including Motivational Factors Questionnaires (MFQ), class observations, student journals, a semi-structured. y. Nat. er. io. sit. interview with the participant’s ESL teacher, and two semi-structured interviews with the participant. The various data collection instruments used in this study were revised and. al. n. iv n C adapted from Yashima et al.’s and Macintyre studies (Yashima et al., 2018; h e netgal.’s chi U Macintyre et al., 2011).. 3.3.1 Motivational Factors Questionnaire The first questionnaire that the researcher used was the MFQ. The questions in the MFQ were categorized into five sections that correspond to five sub-factors of the two enduring factors in Layer V of the Heuristic Model. Table 3.1 shows the sub-factors and factors that the researcher aimed to explore through the MFQ in the present study.. 26. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(43) Table 3.1: Layer, Name of the Factors, Name of the Sub-factors, Number of Questions, and Total Number of Questions on the MFQ Layer Name of Factors in Name of Sub-factors in the No. of Questions the Heuristic Heuristic Model Model V Intergroup attitudes Integrativeness 7 Fear of Assimilation 7 Motivation to learn the L2 7 V Intergroup climate Perceptual and Affective 6 Correlates Structural Characteristics of the 8 Community Total Number of Questions 35. From Table 3.1, it shows that the researcher used the MFQ to investigate two. 政治大. enduring factors, intergroup attitudes, and intergroup climate through investigating the. 立. five sub-factors, integrativeness, fear of assimilation, motivation to learn the L2,. ‧ 國. 學. perceptual and affective correlates, and structural characteristics of his community. In the MFQ, seven items from Yashima’s factor analysis of Japanese learners’. ‧. orientations (Yashima, 2002) were modified and used. Six items from MacIntyre, Baker,. y. Nat. sit. Clement and Conrod’s (2001) social support index were also modified and used. Twenty-. n. al. er. io. two items from Ryan’s Motivational Factors Questionnaire (Ryan, S., 2009) were also. Ch. i Un. v. modified and used. The participant rated all items on a six-point scale. The reliability and. engchi. validity of the questionnaire are explained below.. 3.3.1.1 Reliability The thirty-five questions on the MFQ were categorized into five sections measuring the participant’s integrativeness, fear of assimilation, motivation to learn the L2, perceptual and affective correlates, and structural characteristics of his community. To assessed the reliability of the MFQ, the researcher chose the forms of internal consistency and test-retest to assess the reliability of the MFQ. In terms of internal consistency, the. 27. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(44) thirty-five questions on the MFQ were categorized into five sections. Internal consistency reliability is measured by calculating Cronbach’s alpha (Litwin, M. S., 1995). According to Litwin (1995), Cronbach’s alpha reflects how well the items complement each other in the measurement of different aspects of the same variable. According to Fink (1995), when the size of the correlation is zero to zero point two five, the items have little or no relationship. When the size is zero point two six to zero point five, the items have fair degree of relationship. When the size is zero point five one to zero point seven five, the items have moderate to good relationship. And when the size is over zero point seven five, the items have very good to excellent relationship. The data show that the internal. 政治大. consistency of the items in the sections of fear of assimilation, and structural. 立. characteristics of the community are 0.692, and 0.63, indicating that the items in these two. ‧ 國. 學. sections have moderate to good relationships. And the internal consistency of the items in. ‧. the sections of integrativeness, motivation to learn the L2, and perceptual and affective correlates are 0.905, 0.941 and 0.791, indicating that the items in these three sections have. sit. y. Nat. io. al. n. section.. er. very good to excellent relationships. Table 3.2 shows the internal consistency of each. i n CMFQ Table 3.2: Internal Consistency of the U he gchi Layer Name of Factors Namen of Sub-factors V. Intergroup attitudes. V. Intergroup climate. v. Integrativeness Fear of Assimilation Motivation to learn the L2 Perceptual and Affective Correlates Structural Characteristics of the Community. Cronbach’s alpha 0.905 0.692 0.941 0.791 0.630. In terms of the test-rest reliability, the researcher also applied the test-retest method to assess the reliability of the five sections of the MFQ. Test-retest reliability is measured by having the same set of respondents complete a survey at two different points in time to see how stable the responses are (Litwin, 1995). Correlation coefficients, or r. 28. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(45) values, are then calculated. According to Litwin (1995), r values are considered good if they equal or exceed zero point seven. All the r values of the MFQ in the present study exceed zero point seven, indicating that the test-retest reliability of the MFQ is good. Table 3.3 shows the test-retest reliability of each section.. Table 3.3: Test-Retest Reliability of the MFQ Layer Name of Factors Name of Sub-factors V Intergroup Integrativeness attitudes Fear of Assimilation Motivation to learn the L2 V Intergroup Perceptual and Affective Correlates climate Structural Characteristics of the Community. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 3.3.1.2 Validity. 政治大. Correlation 0.801 0.873 0.837 0.851 0.972. The researcher applied face validity and content validity methods to assess the. ‧. validity of the MFQ. In terms of face validity, the researcher asked two untrained. sit. y. Nat. individuals to review the items in the five sections of the MFQ. According Litwin (1995),. n. al. er. io. face validity is based on the review by untrained judges. One of the judges had a master. i Un. v. degree, and had worked as a high school English teacher for more than fifteen years. The. Ch. engchi. other judge had a bachelor degree, and had worked in the field of commerce for more than ten years. The two untrained judges thought the thirty-five items in the six sections of the MFQ were all suitable for measuring the participant’s integrativeness, fear of assimilation, motivation to learn the L2, perceptual and affective correlates, and structural characteristics of his community. In terms of the content validity of the MFQ, the researcher asked one professional who worked in the bilingual school to review the items in the five sections of the MFQ. According Litwin (1995), content validity is a subjective measure of how appropriate the items seem to reviewers who have some knowledge of the subject matter. The. 29. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(46) professional had a master degree from the Department of Applied Foreign Languages of National Taiwan University of Science and Technology. He provided some useful suggestions to the MFQ. According to him, the questions were few, but also suitable for measuring the enduring factors that the researcher aimed to explore. The researcher administered the MFQ twice during the study. The first time that the researcher administered the MFQ was on May 31st, 2019, and the second time was on August 28th, 2019. The reason for administering the MFQ twice was because the researcher wanted the participant’s answers to be certain.. 政治大. 3.3.2 Class observation and Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories. 立. The researcher observed one of the two kinds of English classes that the. ‧ 國. 學. participant had in the semester. One was the English as a Second Language (ESL) class,. ‧. which focused on developing students’ overall English abilities, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, and the knowledge of vocabulary and syntax. The. sit. y. Nat. io. er. other was the senior high school English class, which focused on the learning contents chosen by the Ministry of Education (MOE). The researcher observed the participant’s. al. n. iv n C ESL class because this class was taught h entirely in EnglishU e n g c h i by a foreign teacher. During the observation, the researcher took notes and used the Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (Flanders, N., A., 1970) to record and analyze the interactions in class. Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) is a simple category system that has been widely modified and used (Wragg E., 1999). The researcher modified the FIAC to suit the research purposes. According to Wragg (1999), a researcher needs to tally every three seconds when using FIAC; however, since it would make the researcher fatigued after thirty minutes, the researcher tallied FIAC every ten seconds in the forty-five-minute classes in this study. The researcher observed the participant’s seven ESL sessions.. 30. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(47) 3.3.3 Student Journals Every week, the participant was also asked to write down four situations in which he was most willing to communicate in English, and four situations in which he was least willing to communicate in English in the journal. The data from the student’s journals corresponded to one enduring factor, Social Situations in Layer V in the Heuristic Model. The researcher analyzed the participants, the setting, the purpose, and the topic from the journal entries written by the participant.. 3.3.4 Semi-Structured Interview with the ESL Teacher. 政治大. A semi-structured interview with the instructor of the ESL class was conducted in. 立. English by the researcher. The researcher asked the instructor about his opinions and. ‧ 國. 學. suggestions for the participant. The questions asked here were formed from the. ‧. participant’s answers to the MFQ questions, the participant’s journal entries, and observation notes that the researcher took while observing the sessions. The instructor also. sit. y. Nat. io. er. commented on the in-class performance of the participant.. n. al. i n 3.3.5 Semi-Structured Interviews C with the Participant U hengchi. v. Finally, two semi-structured interviews with the participant were conducted in Mandarin Chinese. Some interview questions were adapted from Yashima and associates’ research (Yashima et al., 2018), other were from the participant’s responses in the MFQ, the FIAC records, and his student journal entries that he put down after each class.. 31. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(48) 3.4 Data Analysis. 3.4.1 Coding Scheme of Enduring Variables that Influence WTC To answer our research question one, “How did some enduring factors enhance the WTC of the participant in the study?” the researcher collected data from classroom observations, the FIAC sheets, the MFQ, student journals, a semi-structured interview with the ESL teacher, and two semi-structured interviews with the participant. In the present study, the researcher aimed at focusing on three specific enduring factors in Layer V in the Heuristic Model. Therefore, the coding scheme was (1) intergroup climate, (2). 政治大. social situation, and (3) intergroup attitudes.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 3.4.1.1 Intergroup Climate. According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (1998), intergroup climate. ‧. relies on the structural characteristics of the community, and their perceptual and affective. y. Nat. er. io. sit. correlates. Structural characteristics of the community are a person’s ethnic group’s group attitude toward the L2. Perceptual and affective correlates relate to the feeling and attitude. n. al. Ch. i Un. v. of a person. In the present study, the researcher first analyzed the answers in the sections. engchi. of structural characteristics of the community, and perceptual and affective correlates on the MFQ. Second, the researcher intended to find out the participant’s and his family’s feelings and attitude toward English learning through the two semi-structured interviews that the researcher had with the participant.. 3.4.1.2 Social Situation According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (1998), a social situation is influenced by five factors, the participants, the setting, the purpose, the topic, and the. 32. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.

(49) channel of communication. In the present study, the researcher explored how these factors influenced the participant’s WTC through the student journal that the participant wrote, the one interview the researcher had with the participant’s ESL teacher, and the two interviews with the participant himself. In the journals, the participant wrote down four situations in which he was most willing to communicate in English, and four situations in which he was least willing to communicate in English every week. Through the interviews and student journals, the researcher intended to find out how the factors in different social situations influence the participant’s WTC.. 3.4.1.3 Intergroup Attitudes. 立. 政治大. According to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (1998), an individual’s. ‧ 國. 學. intergroup attitude has three aspects, integrativeness, fear of assimilation, and motivation. ‧. to learn the L2. The researcher first analyzed all the answers in the sections of integrativeness, fear of assimilation, and motivation to learn the L2 on the MFQ. From the. sit. y. Nat. io. er. data, the researcher formed certain questions that would be used in the semi-structured interviews with the participant. Then, two semi-structured interviews with the participant. al. n. iv n C were conducted. From the interviews,hthe researcher aimed e n g c h i U to find out the participant’s levels of integrativeness, fear of assimilation, and motivation to learn the L2, and how they influenced the participant’s WTC in different situations.. 3.4.2 Coding Scheme of Situational Variables that Influence WTC As stated in the previous chapter, because of the following reasons, the situational factors and the L2 communicative behaviors in the Heuristic Model were not investigated in the present study. First, according to MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement and Noels (1998), willingness to communicate in Layer II is the decision-making moment after all the. 33. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202001076.