CHAPTER THREE
THEORY AND METHODOLOGY
This chapter is to point out the theoretical framework of this study.
Droste’s meta-metaphor theory is the basis for meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese. Shan’s research is reviewed as well so that his idea of identifying the counterpart of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese can be appreciated and reflected.
First of all, the collected examples of meta-metaphoric expressions in Shan’s thesis are carefully examined and a confusing point of distinguishing the two linguistic phenomena, pun and metaphor, is to be brought up and needs clarification. Then Droste’s theory of meta-metaphor is to be applied to Mandarin Chinese. Finally, a model of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese in this research is proposed. How the data are selected, processed and categorized is also pointed out to prove the presence of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese.
3.1 Modification of Shan’s Study
Shan’s attempt to identify the counterpart of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese sheds light on the “linguistic universals” feature of Droste’s theory.
Although this study aims to simply explore the underlying magic of
meta-metaphor, the idea of minimalism is always welcomed. By scrutinizing
the analysis and discussion of Shan’s meta-metaphoric expressions in
Mandarin Chinese, we find the problematic criterion of classification and,
hence, the confusion of pun and metaphor.
3.1.1 Analysis of the Data
Shan classifies the collected meta-metaphors into three representative groups according to how they take shape as a meta-metaphor. The inadequate data are to be listed in each category and they are to be discussed why they are not true meta-metaphor originally proposed by Droste.
(1) General meta-metaphor:
S 10: “mei” nu lian qiou xie jue can guan (mei nu lien ch’iu hsieh chueh ts’an kuan)
SAβ: “Beautiful” girls are practicing playing basketball, and observation is rejected;
SAα: “American” girl players are practicing playing basketball, and observation is rejected;
「美」 女 練 球 謝 絕 參 觀
(the American team rejects to be watched and observed by the other teams when practicing)
Obviously, there is no metaphor. Mei nu is interpreted literally as
“beautiful girl” and the contextual signal, the metaphoric marker, results in polysemic reading. Mei also refers to “American” on account of the homophonous association. Both interpretations are in the literal sense;
the context is the key to another conventional meaning. Meta-process is absent in interpreting this expression.
S 11: Xi yue qi che: an quan jiou shi xi yue (hsi yueh ch’i ch’e an ch’uan chiu shih hsi yueh)
SAβ: Safety is joy;
SAα: Safety means SEAT;
喜悅汽車 : 安全就是喜悅
( SEAT: a Spanish automobile)
Xi yue means “joy” literally. However, when the context is provided, xi yue refers to a certain brand of car. The advertisement intended to relate the car to the conceptions of safety and joy. But still, meta-process does not take place because there is no SA β transferred to SA α .
S 12: Zhen xi mei yi fen ji yuan (chen his mei yi fen chi yuan) SAβ: We cherish every flight taken by you;
SAα: We cherish every chance of meeting you;
珍惜每一份「機」緣 ( CAL: China Airlines)
Ji yuan is interpreted as “chance” literally. But when it is known as a CAL advertisement, the context urges readers to get a new meaning relating to “flight.” From the interpretation “chance” to “flight,” the process has nothing to do with the meta-function. Both of the meanings are the result of the multiple meanings of the character “ji.”
S 13 : Ti gao gou tueng xiao lu, zhang wo zhuan qian xian “ji” (t’i kao kou t’ung hsiao lu chang wo chuan ch’ien hsien chi)
SAβ: To enhance communicative efficiency, own the moneymaking telephone set;
SAα: To enhance communicative efficiency, grasp the opportunity of making money;
提高溝通效率 掌握賺錢先機
( SAMPO: microcomputer electronic telephone system)
Ji in this context can refer to “opportunity” and “machine” as well.
The polysemy of the character ji evokes the two interpretations.
Meta-process is not involved.
S 14 : Zhe bu “xin ruei” de xi de ming che (che pu hsin jui te hsi te ming ch’e) SAβ: This “new and keen” well-known West Germany car;
SAα: This well-known West Germany car of “Sierra”;
這部「新銳」的西德名車
( Sierra: an automobile from European Ford)
Xin ruei literally means “new and keen” and with the context, an advertisement of the sedan, it refers to the proper name of the latest car model. The interpretive process of the expression does not involve meta-process.
S 15: “Tiao” de dan zhan xin jing (t’iao te tan chan hsin chin) SAβ: The heart is beating with fright;
SAα: The quick shift of numbers of the fare meter in a taxi is frightening and nerve-racking;
「跳」得膽顫心驚
( some taxi drivers manipulate the fare meters illegally to charge more money from passengers)
Tiao can be interpreted as either “heart beating” or “ shift of numbers.”
The two meanings are conventional and literal in their respective contexts. SA β and SA α are not evoked and meta-process is not involved at all.
(2) Meta-metaphors of homophonous origin:
Basically, most of the utterances in this category can be ruled out.
They cannot be regarded as meta-metaphor in the sense that Droste’s meta-metaphor is on the basis of metaphor, which should refer to an element it is homomorphous with, and can only be identified through a meta-process.
S 4: Hu li ren yuan “xin” shi zhi duo shao? (hu li jen yuan hsin shih chih tuo shao)
SAβ: With nurses, how much do you know about their frames of mind?
SAα: With nurses, how much do you know about their salaries?
護理人員「薪事」知多少?
( nurses in Taiwan are not well treated as to their salaries)
S 5: Da lu nu wa fen “yong” xiang qi (ta lu nu wa fen yung hsiang ch’ien) SAβ: Mainland female swimmers try the best to move forward bravely;
SAα: Mainland female swimmers swim hard forward and break several world records;
大陸女娃奮「泳」向前
( the female swimmers of the team from Mainland China has won several gold medals)
S 6: San ling ling shuei yin dian chi “tuo yin er chu” (san ling ling shui yin tien chih t’uo yin ern ch’u)
SAβ: Mitsubishi no-mercury batteries, outstanding in quality;
SAα: Mitsubishi no-mercury batteries, manufactured with no involvement of mercury;
三菱零水銀電池「脫銀而出」
( Mitsubishi batteries containing no mercury)
S 16: Jin-men yu junn tueng le (chin men yu chun t’ung le) SAβ: having a good time with “you all”;
SAα: having a good time along with the soldiers in Jin-men;
金 門 與「軍」同 樂
(went to Jin-men to cheer up soldiers there)
S 17: Zai Fu-lu-di, wo men xi huan tan cheng xiang jian! (tsai fu lu ti wo men
hsi huan t’an ch’eng hsiang chien)
SAβ: At Fu-lu-di, we like to be naked to each other;
SAα: At Fu-lu-di, we like to be frank and honest to each other;
在富綠第,我們喜歡坦誠相見!
(Fu-lu-di: a project of a new apartment building)
S 18: Wei-chuan jiang you: gei ni jiang, bu shi shuei bian jiang yi jiang! (wei ch’uan chiang yu kei ni chiang pu shih sui pien chiang yi chiang)
SAβ: Wei-chuan soy sauce: the claim to give you a prize is not randomly made;
SAα: Wei-chuan soy sauce: the prize for you is not an ordinary one;
味全醬油:給你獎,不是隨便獎一獎!
( Wei-chuan: a producer of soy sauce)
S 19: Chang “tan” yin yue ren sheng (ch’ang t’an yin yueh jen sheng) SAβ: Talk freely about a life of music;
SAα: Freely play the piano and enjoy a musical life;
暢「彈」音樂人生 ( Yamaha music school)
It is noteworthy that S20 involves code-mixing
1and transliteration at the same time, the linguistic phenomena which will be further discussed in Chapter Five. This expression is a transliteration of Taiwanese into Mandarin Chinese and is mixed into a Chinese utterance. The strategy might make meta-metaphor “thrive”
vividly in Mandarin Chinese.
1
Code-mixing refers to embedding a unit of one language into a sentence of another
language. See further discussion in Chapter Five.
S 20: “Shui dang dang” de yun dueng jing ji (shui tang tang te yun t’ung ching chi)
SAβ: So beautiful and graceful a sport;
SAα: A water-related sport;
「水噹噹」的運動競技
( water ballet: a water-related sport)
Shui dang dang is the transliteration of “beautiful” in Southern Min. It is represented in Chinese characters, which acquire the metaphoric meaning from its pronunciation in Southern Min. When the contextual information is added, the meta-metaphoric expression is associated to a water-related sport in its literal sense.
(3) Meta-metaphors of idiomatic origin:
The third group of meta-metaphors is those of metaphoric origin.
Data of this category are, finally, the adequate meta-metaphor defined by Droste. In the following expressions, their figurative interpretation, SA β , is evoked first since they are idioms, which conventionally relate to the metaphoric meanings. Then the combination of context and FR triggers the literal interpretation, SA α . Shan’s collected examples in this group are truly meta-metaphors because of the existence of a meta-process.
S 7: Da “che” pin jiao zhu shi chang zhan you che shang jing zheng
zhung ju (ta ch’e p’in chiao chu shih ch’ang chan yu ch’e shang ching cheng chuan chu)
SAβ: a great competition for occupying the market, car merchants are competing even more intensely;
SAα:automobile competition for occupying the market, car merchants
are competing even more intensely;
大「車」拼角逐市場佔有車商競爭轉劇
(the competition is growing more and more intense in the car market of Taiwan)
Da che pin is an idiom which means “a great competition” in the metaphoric sense. However, this idiomatic SA β is not so compatible to the context and the FR, a warning which then plays an instrumental role in triggering its literal interpretation, SA α . The contextual information revitalizes the meta-metaphoric expression.
S 8: Hu fa you yi tao, mei li dai huei jia (hu fa yu yi t’ao mei li tai hui chia) SAβ: We are good at hair protection, and you can own the beauty of hair;
SAα: There is a set of devices for hair protection, and you can own the beauty of hair;
護髮有一套 美麗帶回家
( Luxuriant: hair protection cream)
The idiomatic expression you yi tao conventionally relates to concepts like “capable of treating something satisfactorily” as its metaphoric meaning, SA β . Owing to the context and the FR, the secondary utterance–meaning, SA α , is evoked. Its nonmetaphoric meaning is revitalized.
S 9: Chang jung hang kung ru he bu bu deng “tian” (ch’ang jung hang k’ung ju ho pu pu teng t’ien)
SAβ: How the Evergreen group succeeds in developing its enterprise in other areas;
SAα: How the Evergreen group develops its aviation enterprise in the sky;
長榮航空如何步步登「天」
( EVA Airlines recently founded by the Evergreen Group)
Bu bu deng tian is also a common four-character proverb and it is interpreted in the idiomatic and metaphoric sense. The secondary state of affairs is the consequence of the contextual information.
S 21: Yi “si” bu gou (yi szu pu kou) SAβ: Scrupulous about every detail;
SAα: Not any silk is randomly disposed of;
一「絲」不茍
( an advertisement about silkworm silk quilts)
Yi si bu gou is a common four-character proverb. Thus its figurative interpretation, SA β , naturally appears. When it is known as an advertisement about silk quilts, the literal meaning, SA α , is revitalized, maximally conforming to the context and the FR.
S 22: Biao-zhi mei you nan zou de lu (piao chih mei yu nan tsou te lu) SAβ: The Peugeot automobile is invulnerable;
SAα: The Peugeot automobile has no tough roads ahead;
標緻沒有難走的路
( Peugeot: a French automobile)
Nan zou de lu conventionally means “hardship or difficulty.” Then the meta-process occurs in the reference to the literal meaning, SA α , when the particular context, an advertisement of the car, is added.
The meta-metaphoric expression makes references to two SAs,
difficulty and tough road, existing side by side as utterance
meanings of it. Neither SA alone can satisfy the meta-metaphoric
expression.
S 23: Wo men de xin “gan” bao bei (wo men te hsin kan pao pei) SAβ: Our precious and beloved baby (daughter);
SAα: Our beloved baby (daughter) who has just been implanted part of our liver in the baby;
我們的心「肝」寶貝
( a father has donated part of his liver to his daughter)
Xin gan is interpreted as “precious and beloved” in the metaphoric sense. However, when the story of this headline is provided, gan refers to itself and acquires another utterance meaning which is optimally coherent with the combination of context and the FR. The union of SA α with SA β serves as meanings of the meta-metaphor, providing a double extensional value.
3.1.2 Discrepancy Between Pun and Meta-metaphor
After analyzing Shan’s meta-metaphoric expressions in each category, we find out some inadequate data that result from the misunderstanding of pun and meta-metaphor. In this section, the reason why Shan mistakes them for meta-metaphor is to be discussed. Apparently, the difference between pun and meta-metaphor needs clarification so that the theory of meta-metaphor proposed by Droste is meaningful and unique.
Koestler (1974: 8) defines the pun as “two disparate strings of thought
tied with an acoustic knot.” Apte (1985: 179f) remarks, “Pun is the most
common linguistic humor, which is usually defined as a play on words and
involves the use of homonyms in a single context in which only one meaning
is appropriate, while the other meaning may appear so only by extension or by
association and in some instances may seem incongruent.” Redfern (1986: 6)
notes that a pun “is a post-Renaissance word, and an inaccurate but convenient tag for a whole variety of rhetorical devices which play on words.” Sherzer (2002) regards a pun as a “form of speech play in which a word or phrase unexpectedly and simultaneously combines two unrelated meanings.”
Let’s see an interesting example: the advertisement for Anglia Building Society. The logo for this company is a triangle, which appears prominently in the ad. The copy reads: If buying a house seems a vicious circle, try Anglia.
The pseudo-homonym “try Anglia”, similar to “triangular,” together with the context, the poster, are the key to the punning effect. (Culler, 1988)
So far, we can conclude that pun does not necessarily relate to metaphor, which is the basis of the formation of meta-metaphor. The multiple meanings of pun result mostly from the phonological aspect. Pun is defined in the broad sense but meta-metaphor a narrower one. The latter is restricted to monophones, which refer to one word with one sound but different meanings.
In addition, meta-metaphor and pun are designed to have different aims.
Culler (1988) indicates that puns have both a decorative function and, more important, a phatic one. On the one hand, puns are decorative because the understanding of the ambiguity which brings about the humor is not necessary for understanding the main point of the copy. On the other hand, they are phatic in the sense that one of the purposes of humor is to “lower the psychological defenses, to open the way for close contact and intimacy.”
However, meta-metaphor is intended to deliver a literal state of affairs other than the metaphoric one. If readers fail to interpret the meta-metaphoric expression in its literal sense, they are very likely to miss the main point of the utterance.
3.1.3 The Solution of the Problem
Generally speaking, based on the meta-metaphoric phenomenon in English that Droste proposed, Shan believes that he has found the counterpart of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese. However, he proposes that there should be some inevitable revision of the claims previously made by Droste since English and Chinese are two different languages after all.
Shan (1994) indicates that SA β does not always occur in the first place.
According to Droste (1986), meta-metaphor refers figuratively to a nonliteral state of affairs and then, in a secondary interpretation—the real meta-process, refers to the literal state of affairs the meta-metaphoric expression conventionally refers to. But in Mandarin Chinese, Shan notices that either SA β or SA α can be the state of affair that the meta-metaphoric expression evokes first. However, this false observation is the result of the inadequate data collected by Shan. He mistakes some puns for meta-metaphors. The existence of metaphor is not a must for pun, but for meta-metaphor, which conventionally refers to the metaphoric meaning first. If the differentiation of pun and meta-metaphor is clear, Shan’s question is solved.
3.2 Reinterpretation of Droste’s Theory 3.2.1 Application of Meta-metaphor Theory
Droste’s definition of meta-metaphor is the basis throughout the thesis.
It’s the criterion in selecting the data. The interpretive process of
meta-metaphor is applied to analyze the collected data. For example, a news
headline reads, “yu kuan ch’e k’ai yu (油罐車揩油), ” with context and the FR,
and leads readers to interprete it both metaphorically and literally. The five stages of interpreting this meta-metaphoric expression are as follows:
(a) k’ai yu metaphorically evokes the SA β , referring to “taking advantages of others;”
(b) SA β does not maximally conform to the headline story;
(c) a secondary interpretation is thus induced; yu becomes the referent of itself;
(d) a new, literal SA, namely α , is constructed and k’ai yu refers to
“petroleum” in its literal sense;
(e) at last, the collision theory has come into being: both SAs β and α , existing side by side, antagonize each other.
Droste’s theory of meta-metaphor is perfectly applied to examine and analyze the meta-metaphoric expressions in Mandarin Chinese.
3.2.2 Meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese
In this study Droste’s theory of meta-metaphor in English is applied to prove the existence of it in Mandarin Chinese. We share Shan’s view that meta-metaphor is a universal linguistic phenomenon; furthermore, we attempt to explore the underlying magic of meta-metaphor. Since Mandarin Chinese is a totally different language with unique features of its own, the result of the observations can be both unexpected and expected: unexpected in the sense that meta-metaphor is first and only discussed in English; expected in the sense that the characteristics of Mandarin Chinese, such as the four-character proverbs
2and the semantic/syntactic ambiguities, are easily manipulated to create meta-metaphor. The outstanding feature of Mandarin Chinese is
2
See further discussion in Chapter Four.
homonyms while that of English is synonyms. This major discrepancy makes the present study more significant because the former quality facilitates the design of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese.
Meta-metaphors in Mandarin Chinese share the common properties with those in English. First of all, they have a double extensional value, the metaphoric state of affairs β and the literal state of affairs α . Second, an exclusive “meta-process” is present. Context and the FR play an important role in interpreting the linguistic phenomenon in both Mandarin Chinese and
English. The inherent nature of meta-metaphor is attracting attention.
3.2.3 Classification of Meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese
In order to explore the underlying magic of meta-metaphor, the occurrences of meta-metaphor of different kinds are analyzed through categorizing the data. The collected data can be classified into three groups in terms of three criteria: the content, the structure, and the trigger. First, we will find out meta-metaphors with certain kinds of content are more prevalent.
Second, whether the number of the characters in the meta-metaphorical expressions can determine their frequency of occurrence is to be discussed.
Finally, the triggers of meta-metaphorical expressions will be indicated to
truly understand what motivates the meta-process and revitalizes the literal
interpretation. From the analysis and discussion of the data, certain
characteristics of Mandarin Chinese that “facilitate” the manipulation of
meta-metaphor are to be revealed and appreciated.
3.3 A Model of Meta-metaphor for Mandarin Chinese 3.3.1 A Model
The theoretical framework of this study is based on Droste’s theory of meta-metaphor. Shan’s idea of identifying the counterpart of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese is also adopted. This study holds the view that Droste’s theory with some modifications can be applied to explain the linguistic phenomenon in Mandarin Chinese. Modifications are required since the characteristics of Mandarin Chinese make meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese different from that in English.
The identification of a Chinese meta-metaphor starts from a metaphoric expression, which evokes SA β conventionally and naturally (1). Secondly, the specific context and the FR imply that the expression refers to more than SA β (2). Thirdly, the contexual information allows the trigger in the expression to function in producing SA α (3). Finally, both SA β and SA α
coexist in order to fully understand the meta-metaphoric expression (4). The procedure can be illustrated with the following diagram:
A metaphoric expression Trigger (1) SAβ (3) Context & FR (2)
SAβ SAα (4) Coexistence of SAα and β
Figure 9 : A Model of Meta-metaphor for Mandarin Chinese
3.3.2 Methodology
For proving the existence of meta-metaphor and exploring the unique nature of it in Mandarin Chinese, the data are to be correctly selected and analyzed. Owing to the homomorphous feature of meta-metaphor, the meta-metaphoric expressions are collected from newspapers and their websites, the sources in which the sound and the written Chinese character are provided.
The data are categorized in terms of three phases: the content, the structure, and the trigger. With regard to the content group, what most of the meta-metaphors are about is to be observed. For example,
(22) hsueh k’ai tsu tsu ch’e kung szu hsia tu shou
SAβ: The car renting company did something mean to the man and extorted money from him.
SAα: The car renting company forced the man to take the drug and extorted money from him.
削凱子 租車公司下毒手
Tu shou is the meta-metaphor in this utterance. It refers both to “being malicious” and to “taking drug” in describing a social event. Meta-metaphor makes this news headline more informative and more attention getting while readers glance over newspaper.
(43) pei kou ern tsu kao mao
SAβ: the dog is driving him crazy SAα: the dog molt is driving him crazy 被狗兒子搞毛 (聶雲養狗)
The meta-metaphoric expression kao mao is interpreted metaphorically as
“driving crazy” and literally as “the dog’s molt”. In this news headline about
the experience of pet owners, this meta-metaphor vividly portrays both the
awkward situation and the frame of mind.
(48) ch’eng kan t’iao chi shu keng kao kan SAβ: more skillful in the pole vault
SAα: able to jump over a higher bar in the pole vault 撐竿跳 技術更高竿
Kao kan means “skillful” in its metaphoric sense, and in accordance with the contextual information, it literally refers to “a higher bar in the pole vault”.
The sport news headline takes advantage of the meta-metaphor to carry the polysemic quality.
For the structure group, we are to discuss the common length of meta-metaphoric units in Mandarin Chinese. For example,
(31) kuai hao ch’ih te huo kuo liao
SAβ: quite delicious food for hot pots
SAα: strange but delicious food for hot pots, such as cheese dumplings, yurt-shaped dumplings and ostrich meat.
怪好吃的火鍋料
Kuai is a smallest semantic unit, which means “quite” metaphorically and
“strange” literally. This one-character meta-metaphor catches readers’
attention and arouses the curiosity to continue reading through the whole news story.
(4) yu kuan ch’e k’ai yu
SAβ: the driver of the tank truck got petty advantages at the expense of other people
SAα: the driver of the tank truck scrounged petroleum 油罐車揩油
K’ai yu is regarded as a semantic unit in Mandarin Chinese. It refers
figuratively to “getting petty advantages at the expense of other people or the
state” and literally to “scrounging petroleum” in conformity with the news story. This two-character meta-metaphor makes the news headline not only amusing but also informative.
(59) hsiao pu a cheng ch’ien fu ch’i chieh liang tsu SAβ: the divorced couple became enemies
SAα: the divorced couple quarreled because of a beam carved with their names on it
小布 阿珍 前夫妻結樑子
The three-character idiom chieh liang tsu indeed makes the show business news entertaining. The content and the FR indicate that this meta-metaphor implies more than the metaphoric meaning, that is, the literal one as well.
As for the trigger, the fundamental causes of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese are to be studied and revealed. For example,
(55) fei hsiang ch’u ma
SAβ: Fei Hsiang went into action
SAα: Fei Hsiang showed up in the Golden Horse Awards Ceremony 費翔出馬 (金馬頒獎典禮)
Chu ma metaphorically refers to “going into action” and, according to the contextual information, the embedded proper name ma relates the utterance to
“the Golden Horse Awards Ceremony”. The literal interpretation is the result of the name embedding in the meta-metaphoric expression.
(16) suan chiu chang chung li nung hui ch’ien tsung kan shih ch’ao tai SAβ: get even with
SAα: audit the old account
算舊帳 中壢農會前總幹事超貸 (判賠億餘元)
The idiom suan chiu chang is polysemic in the sense that it refers figuratively
to “getting even with someone” and literally to “auditing the former account”.
In conformity with the particular context and the FR, the semantic ambiguity triggers the literal interpretation of this meta-metaphor.
(67) shao nai nai wei mu ju
SAβ: a young and rich woman breast-feeds
SAα: the mother losing a breast because of cancer still breast-feeds 少奶奶 餵母乳
Shao nai nai is metaphorically interpreted as “a young and rich woman”.
When the news story is told, the syntactic ambiguity triggers the literal interpretation of this meta-metaphor. In its metaphorical sense, shao is regarded as an adjective and nai nai, a noun; in its literal sense, shao is regarded as a verb and nai nai, a noun.
(41) tse yan fen nien ch’ing Update ni te hua chuang shu SAβ: How to look very young? Update your makeup skill.
SAα: How to put on powder to look young? Update your makeup skill.
怎樣粉年輕？Update 妳的化妝術！
Fen is the transliteration
3of “very” in the way Hakkas speak Mandarin Chinese
4. This Chinese character is metaphorically interpreted as “very” and, in compliance with the contextual information, it refers to “powder”. The linguistic phenomenon of transliteration triggers the meta-metaphor.
The characteristics of Mandarin Chinese make the theory of meta-metaphor in Mandarin Chinese different from that in English. The results
3
The definition of transliteration is transformation of text from one script to another, usually based on phonetic equivalencies. For example, Greek text might be transliterated into the Latin script so that it can be pronounced by English speakers. (According to www.cit.gu.edu.au/~davidt/cit3611/glossary.htm .)
4
