Food Additives

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Food Additves 1

Food Additives

Food Additives 2007 Spring term

Instructor: 陳政雄 EP 305, 分機 3628 郭孟怡 EP 204, 分機 2019

Class schedule: Mondays, 8:10 –10:00 am NF 256

Grade： Midterm exam 50%

Final exam 50%

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Food Additves 3

Final Exam 06/11

Acidulants / Flavor Enhancers 郭孟怡

06/04

Protein as Functional Ingredients 郭孟怡

05/28

Bleaching Agents / Processing Agents 郭孟怡

05/21

Leavening Agents 05/14 郭孟怡

Pasting (binding) Agents 郭孟怡

05/07

Pasting (binding) Agents 郭孟怡

04/30

Midterm Exam 04/23

Sweeteners 郭孟怡

04/16

Nutraceutical additives 陳政雄

04/09

Flavoring / Coloring 陳政雄

04/02

Preservatives 陳政雄

03/26

Emulsifier 陳政雄

03/19

Antioxidant 03/12 陳政雄

Law and regulation 陳政雄

03/05

Introduction of Food Additives 陳政雄

02/26

Topics Instructor

Date

Introduction to Food Additives

What is Food:

History:

nutritional and enjoyment

Accidental contact: spice / salt / nitrite

3500 years ago: Egyptian used food color in candy 1886: 1st U.S. additive patent

- a mixture of salt and calcium phosphate as a food condiment

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Food Additves 5

Introduction to Food Additives

Definition:

A substance or a mixture of a substance other than a basic food stuff, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage or packaging. (NOT including contaminants)

(A substance that becomes part of a food product when it is added (intentionally or unintentionally) during the processing or production of that specific food item)

Introduction to Food Additives

食品衛生管理法第一章第三條:

本法所稱食品添加物，係指食品之製造、

加工、調配、包裝、運送、儲藏等過程中。

Definition:

用以著色、調味、防腐、漂白、乳化、增加

香味、安定品質、促進發酵、增加稠度、增

加營養、防止氧化或其他用途而添加或接觸

於食品之物質

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Food Additves 7

Introduction to Food Additives

Definition:

Codex

any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself and not normally used as an ingredient of the food

1958 Food Additives Amendment (Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act)

“any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result direct or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food

Introduction to Food Additives

Except:

1. Pesticide chemicals: in or on a raw agricultural commodity

to the extent that it is intended for use or is used in the production, storage, transportation of any raw agricultural commodity

2. Color additive

Additives or their degradation products generally remain in food, but in some cases they may be removed during processing (e.g.

chelating)

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Food Additves 9

Candidate ingredient

FDA GRAS

review

Food Additive Petition

GRAS by Scientific procedures

Prior history of use

Scientific data review

Fulfilled criteria of FDA

Experts agree to safety-in-use

Used prior to 1958

Proposed rule and public comment period

Final Rule in Federal Register

Approved Food Additive

Introduction to Food Additives

Type of Additives

a. intentional : nutritive, freshness maintain, sensory, processing aid

b. incidental: pesticides, migration

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Food Additves 11

Introduction to Food Additives

Food additives serve five main functions:

1. Maintain product consistency

Emulsifiers provide a consistent texture and prevent products from separating.

Stabilizers and thickeners provide a uniform texture.

Anticaking agents enable substances to flow freely.

Introduction to Food Additives

Food additives serve five main functions:

2. Improve or preserve the nutrient value Fortification and enrichment of foods

e.g. vitamins and minerals are added to many foods including flour, cereal, margarine, and milk.

All products that contain added nutrients must be labeled

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Introduction to Food Additives

Food additives serve five main functions:

3. Maintain the wholesomeness and the palatability of foods

Preservatives reduce the spoilage that air, fungi, bacteria, or yeast can cause.

Preservatives such as antioxidants help preventing the fats and oils from becoming rancid.

Introduction to Food Additives

Food additives serve five main functions:

4. Control the acidity and alkalinity, and to provide leavening Specific additives assist in modification of the acidity or

alkalinity of foods to obtain a desired taste, color, or flavor.

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Introduction to Food Additives Food additives serve five main functions:

5. Provide color and enhance flavor

Certain colors improve the appearance of foods.

Introduction to Food Additives

Functional properties of common food additives

I. Maintain, improve nutritional quality

a. nutrients: fortify, add nutrients, enrich, replace nutrients

e.g. Vit. C (beverage), folic acid, DHA (milk), iron (baked food)

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Introduction to Food Additives

Functional properties of common food additives

II. Facilitate production, processing, or preparation

a. acidulants, alkalis, buffers: multi, flavor, pH control, processing, antimicrobial

e.g. acetic acid (dressing), sodium bicarbonate (chocolate), phosphoric acid (soft drinks), phosphates (meat) b. anticaking agents: keep powders free-flowing

e.g. silicates (salt, baking powder), talc/talcum powder (rice)

Introduction to Food Additives

Functional properties of common food additives II. Facilitate production, processing, or preparation

c. bleaching, maturing agents, dough conditioners: accelerate dough aging, machinability

e.g. peroxides (flour), gums (bread dough)

d. bulking, bodying, thickening, firming: change consistency, stabilize, mouthfeel

e.g. pectin (jams, jellies), alginates (dairy desserts),

carboxymethylcellulose (ice cream, bread), modified starch (sauces, soups), calcium lactate (apple slices)

e. chelating agents: sequester metal ions

e.g. EDTA (beer, canned fish)

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Introduction to Food Additives

Benefits of additives:

1. safer and more nutritive foods –such as antimicrobial and

antioxidant may prevent toxic or hazardous compounds formed in foods, vitamins prevent nutritional deficiencies

2. greater choice of foods –allow to produce numerous out-of-season foods and a variety of new food products

3. lower-priced foods: use less or simple processing, packaging or refrigeration….

Introduction to Food Additives

Risk of additives:

- possible toxicological effects

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Introduction to Food Additives

Safety concerns: Government agents supervise and regulate the use of additives in the products they regulate. However, people who have special diets or intolerances should be careful in selecting products in the grocery store.

Safe is defined as "reasonable certainty that no harm will result from use of an additive."

Introduction to Food Additives

Use of additives:

to improve or maintain nutritional value to enhance quality (sensory value of food) to reduce wastage

to enhance consumer acceptability

to improve keeping quality (shelf life of food)

to make the food more readily available

to facilitate preparation of the food

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Sudan dyes are red dyes that are used for coloring solvents, oils, waxes, petrol, and shoe and floor polishes. They are not allowed to be added to food in the UK and the rest of the European Union.

However, Sudan dyes have been found in a large number of food products containing

contaminated chili powder, which was imported mainly from India.

Fresh chilies are not affected.

Sudan dyes

Law and Regulation

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消基會電子報960303

－－吃湯圓小心防腐劑吃下肚

在華人世界裡，農曆過年要一直過到元宵節才算結束，而元宵節吃湯圓

（元宵）是頗為流行的應景活動！

前年元宵節，消基會檢測市售20樣湯圓，其中位於台北縣的傳統市場中，

購買的4樣散裝湯圓裡，檢測出含有防腐劑；去年元宵節，消基會檢測市售21樣湯圓，其中位於台北縣的傳統市場中，購買的3樣散裝湯圓裡，檢測出含有防腐劑。

今年為再提供消費者選購湯圓的參考，並持續追蹤，消基會工作人員於今年2月24日～2月27日期間，特別針對台北縣市、基隆地區15個傳統市場攤位，

擴大進行攤商的散裝湯圓採樣，並進行「己二烯酸」、「苯甲酸」及「去水醋酸」防腐劑項目的檢測。

Law and Regulation

Food additive legally refers –

substance which are added intentionally and directly to foods in

regulated amounts, to impart some function. Also included are

indirectly added substances which unintentionally become part of

foods.

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Law and Regulation

The new chemical substance is on the company that wishes to market or use must provide the proof of safety.

This require a period of testing of several years;

FDA usually requires that a new additive undergo at least a 2–year feeding test in 2 species of animals to reveal long–term as well as short-term effects.

Law and Regulation

Food additive must meet the following requirement.

1. intentional additives must perform an intended and useful function.

2. additive must not deceive consumers or conceal faulty ingredients or defects in manufacturing practices.

3. an additive must not subsequently reduce the food’ s nutritional value.

4. an additive cannot be used to obtain an effect that could be obtained

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Law and Regulation

食品添加物的行政管理

由中央衛生主管機關公告(行政院衛生署)，指定具有某種效果，而在

食品製造、加工、以及儲藏上有某必需性，且其安全性已十分被確認

的天然或合成物資

Law and Regulation

安全評估分為四個類別

主要係針對以往長期食用及製造加工之安全性作考量，故食用目

的、方式、製造加工方法、流程、最終產品形式及攝食量等均為分類

之考慮因素。各類之安全評估項目如下：

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Law and Regulation - 安全評估

第一類：屬下列二種情形之一者，得免再進行毒性測試。

(一) 產品之原料為傳統食用且以通常加工食品形式供食者。

(二) 產品具有完整之毒理學安全性學術文獻報告及曾供食用之紀錄，且其原料、組成成分及製造過程與所提具之學術文獻報告完全相符者。

Law and Regulation - 安全評估

第二類：產品之原料為傳統食用而非以通常加工食品形式供食者，應檢具下列項目之毒性測試資料。

（一）基因毒性試驗

（二）28天餵食毒性試驗

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Law and Regulation - 安全評估

第三類：產品之原料非屬傳統食用者，應檢具下列項目之毒性測試資料

（一）基因毒性試驗

（二）90天餵食毒性試驗

（三）致畸試驗

Law and Regulation - 安全評估

第四類：產品之原料非屬傳統食用且含有致癌物之類似物者，應檢具下列項目之毒性測試資料

（一）基因毒性試驗

（二）90天餵食毒性試驗

（三）致畸試驗

（四）致癌性試驗

（五）繁殖試驗

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Law and Regulation

毒性試驗

1. 基本試驗資料:

- 每日攝取量預估 (daily exposed)

- 生理反應: 代謝，吸收，排泄，分布，堆積

- acute response

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Law and Regulation

Toxicological test

2. Toxicity : - acute - subacute

- chronic (including carcinogen) - reproduction

- genetic (Ames test) - teratogenicity

Law and Regulation

Acute toxicity test

begin with the exposing to two or more species of animals, e.g. rat or

dog, to the substance using high levels as a single dose orally or

by injection into the blood stream

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Law and Regulation

Subacute toxicity test

With a large number of 2 or more species of animals are fed daily for 90 days amounts of the test substance just below the lethal dose.

Law and Regulation

Chronic toxicity test

- feeding test animals to lifelong

- use 100 –1000 times the human allowable levels from subacute test

- sacrifice animal at interval and exam physiologically and biochemically

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Law and Regulation

Pharmacokinetic studies: determine the absorption, distribution among tissues and organs, metabolism, and elimination of test substances.

Reproductive tests: to determine the effect on male or female fertility or on little size, little weight, number of surviving young, and possible birth defects.

Law and Regulation

ADI = acceptable daily intake

= NOEL x safety factor (1/100)

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Law and Regulation

衛生署依食品衛生管理法，對食品添加物採兩項行政管理措施:

1. 食品添加物製造與輸入的查證登記

2. 限制食品添加物的使用對象及用量

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Law and Regulation

規格標準

保證食品添加物的使用安全有兩個基本條件:

1.

使用必須符合規格標準

2.

使用方法必須適當

用量標準: 如抗氧化劑使用混合，則每一抗氧化劑使用量除用量標準之數值總和不得大於1 ( Σ使用量 / 用量標準 < 1)

Law and Regulation

Toxicity Test Defined test material Exposure assessment

Acute toxicity

+ –

Reject genetic toxicity

+ –

Reject metabolism &

Pharmacokinetics

+ U S

Reject Subchronic toxicity & Accept

Reproduction

+ ? –

Reject chronic toxicity Accept

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Law and Regulation

毒性試驗 (長期) 一般試驗:

1. 急性毒性試驗

- 動物: 中毒量/致死量，中毒現象

LD50 (as a basis for establishing dose and route of exposure for subsequent prolonged test)

- requires 3 adult animals, one must not be rodent - ten animals for each test with both sex

Law and Regulation

毒性試驗 (長期) 一般試驗:

2. 亞急性(短期，決定慢性試驗劑量)，慢性毒性試驗亞急性: 動物壽命1/10時間

e.g. mouse: 2-3 month rat: 3-4 month dog: 1 year

慢性 (life long test): 選擇對檢試物的吸收，排泄，代謝與人類近

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Law and Regulation

毒性試驗 (長期) 一般試驗:

3. 生化試驗 (臨床)

a. 肝功能檢驗: 如血液轉換脢活性 (transamminase) 鹼性磷酸脢活性 (phosphatase) BSP 排泄

血液蛋白 b. 腎功能檢驗: 血清中非蛋白氮

對氨基類尿酸試驗尿蛋白，尿糖

Law and Regulation

毒性試驗 (長期)

特殊毒性試驗 1. 致畸胎性試驗

檢驗母體服用檢試物後對胎兒的影響

- 大劑量: 在一定時間 (2 wk) 連續服用檢試物的最大無副作用量 - 小劑量: 人體常攝入量

on mouse, rat, dog….. (包括感受期餵食)

感受期: 胎兒發育過程中，發育種種器官之特定細胞出現的期間，

typical > 7 days  check infant shape

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Law and Regulation 毒性試驗 (長期)

特殊毒性試驗 2. 致癌性

50 –100 animals and up

feeding with 1/2, 1/4, 1/10 NOEL check organ if swollen

2 yr and up test

3. 突變性 genetic test (Ames test)

Antioxidants

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Antioxidants

involving: initiation, propagation, termination

light initiate a free radical chain reaction

photooxidation autooxidation

Mechanism of lipid oxidation

Antioxidants

Oxidation problem Rancidity: off-flavor

Color change: lightening of carotenoids darkening of fat/oil

Loss of odor: essential oil. e.g. citrus oils lose their high distinctive fruity note of odor

Viscosity change: fat/oil becomes thicker that is catalyzed by free

radicals

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Antioxidants

Health concerns

- Cancers (free radical damage DNA / cause mutation) - Cardiovascular disease

- Cataract

- Bacterial/viral infection

- Parkinson’ s / Alzheimer’ s disease

A.O neutralize potentially harmful reactive free radical in body cells before they attack DNA or cause lipid to oxidize.

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Antioxidants

Promoters of oxidation Heat:

Light: uv

Heavy metal: iron, copper

Alkaline condition: basic condition and alkaline metal promote free radical oxidation

Degree of unsaturated fatty acid: number and position of double bond in fat,

Pigment: residual pigment in vegetable oil promote oxidation Oxygen: availability, required in oxidation

Antioxidants

Mechanism of Lipid Oxidation Initiation

RH  R+ H

- free radical formed when H is lost

- fat free radical + O2  peroxyl free radical

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Antioxidants

Mechanism of Lipid Oxidation

Propagation R+ O

₂

 ROO

ROO+ RH  ROOH + R

- the peroxyl radicals remove a H from a lipid to forma relatively stable hydroperoxide and a new unstable fatty acid radical - then react w/ O

₂

to form new reactive peroxyl radicals

Antioxidants

Mechanism of Lipid Oxidation Termination

ROO+ H  ROOH ROO+ R  ROOR RO + R ROR

- two unstable free radical react each other free radical react w/ AO

- hydroperoxides spilt into smaller short chain organic compound

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Antioxidants

Most commonly used

- Phenolic compounds: BHA - butylated hydroxyanisole;

BHT - butylated hydroxytoluene;

TBHQ - tertiary butylhydroquinone

- Ascorbic acid / citric acid: in most fruit against enzymatic oxidation - Sulfur dioxide: AO and preservative

- Natural Flavoring: extract from rosemary and sage compounds in green tea

Antioxidants - Types

Oxidative inhibition by antioxidant:

1. the donation of electron or hydrogen ion to a fat containing a free radical

2. the formation of a complex between AO and the fat chain

- AO can’ t scavenge / absorb oxygen

- to be effective : AO should be added as early as possible

- AO can’ t reverse rancid oil, nor enzymatic hydrolytic rancidity

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Antioxidants - Types

Free radical terminators

- interrupt free radical chain by contributing hydrogen atom from the phenolic hydroxyl group

e.g. BHA, BHT, TBHQ, PG, vit E

Antioxidants - Types

Reducing agents

- function by transferring H atom

e.g. ascorbic acid, erythorbic acid, ascorbyl palmitate, SO

₂

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Antioxidants - Types

Oxygen scanvenger:

- removing dissolved or headspace oxygen e.g. glucose oxidase

Ageless (iron powder): Fe  Fe

⁺⁺

+ 2(OH)

^

 Fe(OH)

₂

Fe(OH)

₂

+ ¼ O

₂

+ ½ H

₂

O  Fe(OH)

₃

Antioxidants - Types

Chelating agents (as synergist)

- provide an unshared pair of e

^

in their molecular structure promote the complexing action

- not real antioxidant, but used in combination w/ AO - grab and hold / complex with pro-oxidant metal ion

e.g. citric acid / salt, phosphate ; EDTA

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Antioxidants - Types

Secondary antioxidants

- decompose the hydrogen peroxide elicited during lipid oxidation into stable end products

e.g. thiodipropionic acid

Antioxidants

Selection is based on - compatibility

- effectiveness in certain fat - approved by federal regulation - solubility in fat / water

- good dispersibility through out the food

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Antioxidants

Method of application

1. direct addition: generally incorporated by direct addition to fats/oils would be better as early as possible

2. spray addition: dissolved in food grade solvent 3. impregnated in packaging material / system

incorporated into wax paper, PE, paperboard

AO through volatilization  penetrate and provide protection within packaging material

Antioxidants

Consideration for applying AO

1. thoroughly dissolved and homogeneously dispersed in final product 2. at proper time

3. be aware the processing steps can remove or destroy AO

4. legal amount