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(2) Evolution as Theory and Fact • Confusion sometimes arises as to whether Evolution is a theory or a fact. • The theory of Evolution deals with how Evolution happens. Our understanding of this process is always changing. • Evolution is also a fact as there is a huge amount of evidence for its occurrence. (But how to explain?) Rodin’s “The Thinker”. Outline • Part 1: How was evolution discovered? • Part 2: How does evolution work? • Part 3: What is the evidence for evolution?.
(3) Discovery. Fixed species. Michelangelo’s fresco on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 從古典到文藝復興時期之後，物種長期視為是特別的創造 物，永久固定不變。 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Creation_of_Adam. Discovery. Transmutation. Lamarck: 用進廢退說 • 經常使用器官會漸趨發達， 不用的會退化。（個體上成 立） • 後天獲得的變化，可以遺傳 給後代if an animal acquired a. characteristic during its lifetime, it could pass it onto its offspring.. ‧批評：體細胞的變異不會遺 傳到後代. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck 1744-1829.
(4) • Hence giraffes got their long necks through generations of straining to reach high branches.. Discovery. Fossils and Strata. William Smith： geology map & some of his fossil specimens. 化石和地層. William Smith were mapping the rocks and fossils of Britain. -- different species existed in the past compared with today..
(5) Formation of sedimentary rock and deposition of fossils from different time periods. Discovery. Darwin’s Voyage Charles Darwin toured the world in HMS Beagle (1831-1836). He was dazzled by the amazing diversity of life and started to wonder how it might have originated. Voyage of the Beagle.
(6) Discovery Survival of the Fittest Origin of Species (1859) • Darwin proposed how one species might give rise to another. 1. Today’s organisms descended from ancestral species. 2. Natural selection provided a mechanism for evolutionary change in populations. Darwin in 1860. Natural Selection explains adaptation. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Darwin%27s_finches.jpeg. • Where food was limited, competition meant that only the fittest would survive. • This would lead to the natural selection of the best adapted individuals and eventually the evolution of a new species..
(7) Discovery. Mendel and his peas. Genetics. • 1856-63, monk Gregor Mendel cultivated 29000 pea plants to investigate how evolution worked i.e., how characteristics were passed down the generations. • He figured out the basic principles of genetics. He showed that offspring received characteristics from both parents, but only the dominant characteristic trait was expressed. • Mendel’s work only came to light in 1900, long after his death. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mendel.png en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Doperwt_rijserwt_peulen_Pisum_sativum.jpg. 遺傳學之父--孟德爾 • Mendel (1865) Experiments on Plant Hybridization • Law of Unitary Traits每一種遺傳特質，都由一個遺傳單元控制 • 顯隱律, 分離律Law of Segregation, 自由結合律Law of Independent Assortment.
(8) Discovery. Julian Huxley and the Modern Synthesis. Making Sense. • In the early 20th century, scientist started to make sense of how evolution worked. • Building on Mendel’s genetics, studies showed how characteristics in a population could be selected by environmental pressures. • This Modern Synthesis, as Julian Huxley called it, brought Darwin’s Natural Selection back to the centre of evolutionary theory.. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hux-Oxon-72.jpg. Discovery • Despite the achieval of scientific consensus on evolution, some Christian groups continued to oppose the concept. • In 1925, the teaching of evolution was outlawed in Tennessee, USA, resulting in the infamous Scopes Monkey Trial. Opposition. Outside the Scopes Trial. www.templeton-cambridge.org/fellows/vedantam/publications/2006.02.05/eden_and_evolution/.
(9) Discussion: Should Creationism and Evolution be given equal time in science lessons?. science.kukuchew.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2008/01/stop_following_me_creationist.jpg. Mechanism 1: All in the Genes • The genetic make-up of an organism is known as its genotype. • An organism’s genotype and the environment in which it lives determines its total characteristic traits i.e. its phenotype. Genotype. Phenotype. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:DNA_double_helix_vertikal.PNG.
(10) Mechanism 2: DNA • The double-helix structure of DNA was discovered in 1953. • This showed how genetic information is transferred from one cell to another almost without error. Watson and Crick 華森跟克利克 雙股螺旋DNA結構 1962年諾貝爾生醫獎. DNA replication. www.chem.ucsb.edu/~kalju/chem110L/public/tutorial/images/WatsonCrick.jpg en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA. Mechanism 3: Mutation Types of mutation • However, occasional. mutations or copying errors can and do occur when DNA is replicated. • Mutations may be caused by radiation, viruses, or carcinogens. Mutant fruitfly • Mutations are rare and often have damaging effects. Consequently organisms have special enzymes whose job it is to repair faulty DNA.. upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Types-of-mutation.png. humansystemstherapeutics.com/bb.htm.
(11) Mechanism 4:. Variation. • Nevertheless, some mutations will persist and increase genetic variation within a population. • Variants of a particular gene are known as alleles. For example, the one of the genes for hair color comprises brown/blonde alleles.. majorityrights.com/index.php/weblog/comments/racial_variation_in_so me_parts_of_the_skull_involved_in_chewing/. Mechanism 5: Natural Selection Selection of dark gene. • Mutant alleles spread through a population by sexual reproduction. • If an allele exerts a harmful effect, it will reduce the ability of the individual to reproduce and the allele will probably be removed from the population. • In contrast, mutants with favorable effects are preferentially passed on.
(12) Mechanism 5: Natural Selection Haldane and the peppered moth. : ;. • The Peppered Moth is anexample of Natural Selection in action discovered by Haldane • During the Industrial Revolution the trees on which the moth rested became sootcovered. • against the allele for pale color in the population (which were poorly camouflaged from predators) and selected for the dark color allele.. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Biston.betularia.7200.jpg en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane. Mechanism 6: Microevolution • The dog is another example of how selection can change the frequency of alleles in a population. • Dogs have been artificially selected for certain characteristics for many years, and different breeds have different alleles. • All breeds of dog belong to the same species, Canis lupus (the wolf) so this is an example of Microevolution as no new species has resulted. Dogs are wolves www.puppy-training-solutions.com/image-files/dog-breed-information.jpg.
(13) Artificial Selection • nature provides variation, humans select variations that are useful. • Example - a farmer breeds only his best livestock. Mechanism 7: Macroevolution • However, if two populations of a species become isolated from one another for tens of thousands of years, genetic difference may become marked. • Macroevolution: If the two populations can no-longer interbreed, new species are born. • Darwin’s Galapagos finches are • an example of this process in action.. Galapagos finches. www.ingala.gov.ec/galapagosislands/images/stories/ingala_images/galapagos_take_a_tour/small_pics/galapagos_map_2.jpg.
(14) Mechanism 8: Speciation Today? • The mosquito was introduced to the London Underground during its construction around 1900. • It became infamous in the War for attacking people sheltering from the Blitz. • Studies indicate several genetic differences from its aboveground ancestors. Interbreeding between populations is difficult suggesting that speciation may be occurring.. London Underground Mosquito. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gb-lu-Angel-southbound.jpg en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culex. • All of the 500 or so endemic species of Drosophila in the Hawaiian archipelago descended from a common ancestor that reached Kauai over 5 million years ago..
(15) Evidence 1: Biochemistry. DNA for Information Transfer. • The basic similarity of all living things suggests that they evolved from a single common ancestor. • As we have already seen, all living things pass on information from generation to generation using the DNA molecule. • All living things also use a molecule called ATP to carry energy around the organism. ATP for Energy Transfer. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:ATP-xtal-3D-sticks.png. Evidence 2: Similar Genes HUMAN CHIMPANZEE GORILLA. CCAAGGTCACGACTACTCCAATTGTCACAACTGTTCCAACCGTCACGACTGTTGAACGA CCAAGGTCACGACTACTCCAATTGTCACAACTGTTCCAACCGTCATGACTGTTGAACGA CCAAGGTCACAACTACTCCAATTGTCACAACTGTTCCAACCGTCACGACTGTTGAACGA. Genetic code of chimps and gorillas is almost identical to humans. • If evolution is true then we might also expect that closely related organisms will be more similar to one another than more distantly related organisms. • Comparison of the human genetic code with that of other organisms show that chimpanzees are nearly genetically identical (differ by less than 1.2%) whereas the mouse differs by ≈15%..
(16) Evidence 3: Comparative Anatomy. Human and Gorilla. • Similar comparisons can be made based on anatomical evidence. • The skeleton of humans and gorillas are very similar suggesting they shared a recent common ancestor, but very different from the more distantly related woodlouse… • all have a common shared characteristic: bilateral symmetry Woodlouse. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Primatenskelett-drawing.jpg. Evidence 4: Homology 同源. 脊椎動物的四肢 but modified for different uses. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Evolution_pl.png.
(17) • 在生物學種系發生理論中，若兩個或多個結構具有相同 的祖先，則稱它們同源（Homology）。 • 演化上：兩個結構由一個共同的祖先演化而來（蝙蝠的 翅膀與人類的手臂同源） • 發育上：兩個結構由胚胎時期的同一組織發育而來（人 類女性的卵巢與男性的睾丸同源）。 • 趨同演化（ convergent evolution ）：指兩種以上型態或 分子具有相同功能或構造，但卻源自不同起源之演化。 如昆蟲的翅膀、蝙蝠的翅膀和鳥類的翅膀（功能）相似 ，卻不同源。 Evolution at an amino acid position from alanine (A) to serine (S) in its present-day form.. • 脊椎動物同源構造比 較。上下，左右：有 尾目（蠑螈等）、龜 、鱷魚、鳥、人、 貓 、鯨魚、蝙蝠.
(18) 哺乳動物的前肢是同源構造趨異演化 趨異演化（Divergent evolution）：兩個或多個特徵具 有共同演化起源，但在演化歷程中逐漸分化的現象，又 稱適應。如脊椎動物的四肢，可能具有共同起源，但有 不同的構造與功能。. Evidence 4: Vestigial Structures • As evolution progresses, some structures are not longer of use -- vestigial structures. • coccyx尾椎: a much reduced version of an ancestral tail, which was formerly adapted to aid balance and climbing. • Another vestigial structure in humans is the appendix. The coccyx is a vestigial tail en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Illu_vertebral_column.jpg.
(19) Evidence 5:. Fossil Record. • from bacteria to more complicated organisms through time.. © NASA. origins. bacteria. complex cells. dinosaurs. Some major episodes in the history of life. 45 億. humans.
(20) Evidence 6: Transitional fossils • Many fossils show a clear transition from one species, or group, to another. • Archaeopteryx was found in Germany in 1861. It share many characteristics with both dinosaurs and birds. • It provides good evidence that birds arose from dinosaur ancestors. Archaeopteryx. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Archaeopteryx_lithographica_paris.JPG. Evidence 7:. Marsupials. evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/lines/IVCexperiments.shtml en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Kangaroo_and_joey03.jpg. Geography • Geographic spread of organisms also tells of their past evolution. • Marsupials occur today in the Americas and Australia. • the group evolved before the continents drifted apart.
(21) Biogeography: the geographical distribution of species. Convergent evolution. 生物多樣性與演化 趨同演化 趨異演化 輻射適應 共同演化 鴨嘴獸是單孔目產卵哺乳動物 .
(22) 趨同演化 . 新大陸蜂鳥與舊世界太陽鳥 袋獾（塔斯馬尼亞惡魔 Tasmanian Devil）與貂熊（狼 獾）相似. 趨同演化 . 囓齒目兔豚鼠 （南美巴拉圭） 紅袋鼠.
(23) 身體上有刺覆蓋. 針鼴. 刺蝟（趨同演化）. 舊世界與新大陸豪猪是齧齒動物 （平行演化 Parallel evolution ） 針鼴是卵生 哺乳動物. 平行演化 Parallel evolution . Vertebrates and octopuses developed the camera eye independently. In the vertebrate version the nerve fibers pass in front of the retina, and there is a blind spot where the nerves pass through the retina. In the vertebrate example, 4 represents the blind spot, which is notably absent from the octopus eye. In vertebrates, 1 represents the retina and 2 is the nerve fibers, including the optic nerve (3), whereas in the octopus eye, 1 and 2 represent the nerve fibers and retina respectively..
(24) 共同演化（coevolution） . . . . 共同演化：二物種之間 因互動而有互相適應的 構造或行為衍生。 根瘤菌與豆科根、花構 造與傳粉者的互動演化 寄生物與寄主、獵物與 獵食者、植食動物與植 物防禦的關係。. 長喙天蛾 Xanthopan morgani與大慧星風蘭 Angraecum sesquipedale Darwin's orchid之間的 共同演化 In 1867 Alfred Wallace made predictions supporting Darwin's surmise. In 1903, such a moth was discovered in Madagascar..
(25) Evidence 8: Antibiotic resistance • certain bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics-natural selection in action. Staphylococcus 葡萄球菌. • The antibiotic acts as an environmental pressure. It weeds out those bacteria with low resistance and only those with high resistance survive to reproduce. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Antibiotic_resistance.svg en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Staphylococcus_aureus%2C_50%2C000x%2C_USDA%2C_ARS%2C_EMU.jpg. Evolution. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:DNA_double_helix_vertikal.PNG. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Charles_Darwin_1881.jpg.
(26) 侏儒黑猩猩. Cladogram 演化分支圖.
(27) Did humans evolve from chimps?. DISTANT COUSINS. Are humans more highly evolved than chimps?. NO. What familial relationship is a good description of the relationship between chimps and humans?. NO- since the lineage is split, each species has evolved unique traits.. Image courtesy of http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_07. What is Evolution?. The tree is getting larger.. Did the tree evolve?.
(28) • Biological evolution is NOT just a change over time.. • The definition of evolution is Descent with Modification Some sort of change within a lineage. But what is this change? GENETICS. Change with inheritance over a small period of time.. Change with inheritance over a long period of time.. Images courtesy of http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_02. Evolution Allele Frequencies. Natural Selection. Single Gene Traits. Genetic Drift. Polygenic Traits. Directional Selection. So, we can change our definition of evolution from DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION to DESCENT THROUGH GENETIC INHERITANCE. Stabilizing Selection. 無 Æ 有 Disruptive Selection Image courtesy of http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/_0_0/evo_20. ???.
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