Chapter 1 Introduction: Measurement, Physical Quantities and Units
Galaxies are immense as atoms are small. Yet, the same laws of physics govern both, and all the rest of nature, an indication of the underlying unity in the universe. The laws of physics are surprisingly few in number, implying an underlying simplicity to nature’s apparent complexity.
Physics: An introduction
The physical universe is enormously complex in its detail. Quarks, lightning, gravity, flowers, etc.
We have found that nature is remarkably cooperative – it exhibits the underlying order and simplicity that we so value.
The unifying aspect of physical laws and the basic simplicity of nature form the underlying themes of this text.
Science and the Realm of Physics
Science consists of the laws that are the general truths of nature and the body of knowledge they encompass.
Physics is the most basic of the sciences, concerning itself with the interactions of energy, matter, space, and time, and especially with questions of what underlies every phenomenon.
We discover physics by learning how to measure the quantities involved in physics. Among these quantities are length, time, mass, temperature, pressure and electrical current.
Applications of Physics
You need not be a scientist to use physics. On the contrary, a knowledge of physics is useful in everyday situations as well as in nonscientific professions. It can help you understand how microwave oven works, etc..
Physics is the foundation of many important disciplines and contributes directly to other. Chemistry, for example – since it deals with the interactions of atoms and molecules – is rooted in atomic and molecular physics.
The disciplines of biology, chemistry, and physics are needed to understand membranes. [Human and Medical application]
Models, Theories, and Laws; The Role of Experimentation
A model is a mental image or analogy to objects or phenomena that we can experience directly.
A theory is usually a larger-scale and more broadly applicable generalization than a model and often seeks to describe nature with mathematical precision. Some theories include models to help visualize phenomena, whereas others do not.
The designation law is reserved for a concise and very general statement, such as the law that energy is conserved in any process, or Newton’s second law of motion.
Less broadly applicable statements are usually called principles (such as Pascal’s principle, which is applicable only in fluids, but the distinction between laws and principles often is not carefully made.
The models, theories, and laws that we devise sometimes imply the existence of objects or phenomena as yet unobserved. A theory or a law needs to be verified by an experiment. A law may be completely overthrown, or may be modified, as a result of an experiment.
The evolution of natural philosophy into modern physics
Physics was not always a separate and distinct discipline and is not now isolated from other sciences.
The word physics comes from Greek, meaning nature. They study of nature came to be called “naturally philosophy”. From ancient times through the Renaissance, natural philosophy encompassed many fields, including astronomy, biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics and medicine. Physics as it developed from the Renaissance to the end of the 19th century is called classical physics.
Modern physics itself consists of two revolutionary theories, relativity and quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics must be used for objects smaller than can be seen with a microscope.
Physical Quantities and Units
We define a physical quantity either by specifying how it is measured or by stating how it is calculated from other measurements.
We measure each physical quantity in its own units, by comparison with a standard. The unit is a unique name we assign to measures of that quantity – for example, meter (m) for the quantity length. The standard corresponds to exactly 1.0 unit of the quantity.
SI Units: Fundamental and derived units
Many SI derived units are defined in terms of these base units. For example, the SI unit for power, called the watt (W), is defined in terms of the base units of mass, length and time.
Units of Time, Length and Mass: The Second, Meter and Kilogram Length
Time
Mass
Metric Prefixes
Measurements, accuracy, and uncertainty; significant figures
The uncertainty in a measurement is an estimate of the amount it can be off from the “true” value.
Using the method of significant figures, the rule is that the last digit written down is the first digit with some uncertainty. Special consideration is given to zeros when counting significant figures.
Significant figures in calculations
The result has the same number of significant figures as the quantity having the least significant figures entering into the calculation.
Problems:
1.2, 1.37
Chapter 2 Kinematics
Kinematics is defined to be the study of motion without regard to mass or force.
2.1 Displacement
We define displacement to be the change in position of an object
In 1D: ∆x=x2−x1
Distance is defined to be the magnitude of size of displacement. Distance has no direction and, hence has no sign.
Vectors and Scalars
Any quantity with both magnitude and direction is defined to be a vector. For example, displacement is a vector.
Any quantity with a magnitude only, but no direction, is defined to be a scalar. For example, temperature and pressure are both scalars.
2.2 Time, Velocity and Speed
In physics the definition of time is simple – time is change. It is impossible to know that time has passed unless something changes.
We define elapsed time t∆ , to be the difference between the ending time and beginning time:
1
2 t
t t= −
∆
Average velocity
_
v is precisely defined to be displacement (change in position) divided by the time of travel and to have the same direction as displacement.
1 2
1 2 _
t t
x x t v x
−
= −
∆
= ∆
Instantaneous velocity v is the average velocity at a specific instant in time, i.e., ∆t→0
Instantaneous speed is simply defined to be the magnitude of instantaneous velocity.
2.3 Acceleration
Acceleration
_
a is the rate at which the velocity changes. In symbols, average acceleration is defined to be
1 2
1 2 _
t t
v v t a v
−
= −
∆
= ∆
Acceleration is a vector in the same direction as the change in velocity.
Instantaneous acceleration, in symbol, is defined as
dt dv t t
v v t
a v
t
t =
−
= −
∆
= ∆
→
∆
→
∆ 2 1
1 2 0
0 lim
lim
2.4 Motion equations for constant acceleration in one dimension
2.6 Falling objects
An object falling without air resistance or friction is defined to be in Free-fall.
Taken from Fig. 2. 10
m/s2
8 .
=9 g
Taken from Fig. 2.13
Problems: 2.16, 2.31
Chapter 3 Two-dimensional Kinematics
The graphical addition of vectors:
Adding vectors graphically (head to tail)
Taken from Fig. 3.5
Vector can be added in any order. A + B = B + A
Subtracting vector graphically
A – B = A + (-B)
Analytical methods of vector addition
Taken from Fig. 3.19 (Halliday)
Unit vector
Right-hand rule
Projectile Motion
Taken from Figure 3.12
Horizontal
Vertical
The Equation of the path
Horizontal range
Relative velocity and classical relativity
Taken from Halliday
Inertial reference frames (constant velocity)
Problems: 3.42, 3.47
Chapter 4 Dynamics
Newton’s laws of Motion
4.1 Force
Restoring force
Taken from Figure 4.2
Hooke’s law: Fr kxr
−
= Newton’s first law of motion
A body at rest remains at rest, or if in motion remains in motion at constant velocity, unless acted on by a net external force.
Mass
The property by which a body remains at rest or remain in motion with constant velocity is called inertia, and Newton’s first law is often called the law of inertia.
F a∝net
m a net F
=
Newton’s second law of motion
ma F = net
Newton’s third law of motion
Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the first body experiences a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the one it exerts.
Weight and the force of gravity
mg w=
Taken from Figure 4.8
Weight on an incline, a two-dimensional problem
Friction
The magnitude of static friction N
fs ≤µs , whereµ is the coefficient of static friction s
The magnitude of kinetic friction
N
fk =µk , whereµ is the coefficient of kinetic friction k
Taken from Fig. 4.A
Figure 4.21 shows a 75.0 kg man standing on a bathroom scale in an elevator. Calculate the scale reading: (a) if the elevator accelerates upward at a rate of 1.20 m/s2, and (b) if the elevator moves upward at a constant speed.
Taken from Figure 4.21
Sol:
a) net F =ma ma w Fs − =
ma mg Fs = +
N 825 ) m/s 80 . 9 )(
kg 0 . 75 ( ) m/s 20 . 1 )(
kg 0 . 75
( 2 + 2 =
s = F
b) Fs =(75.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2)=735 N
c) Free-fall?
Problems: 4.3, 4.30
Chapter 5 Statics, torque, and elasticity
5.1 The first condition for equilibrium
0 net F =
5.2 The second condition for equilibrium
0 net τ =
Def. rr Fr
×
= τ
Taken from Halliday Center of Mass; center of gravity
...
...
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
CM + + +
+ +
= +
m m m
r m r m r r m
...
...
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
CG + + +
+ +
= +
g m g m g m
r g m r g m r g r m
If g is uniform, then rCM =rCG.
Stability
A system is said to be in stable equilibrium if, when displaced from equilibrium, it experiences a net force or torque in a direction opposite to the direction of the displacement.
A system is in unstable equilibrium if, when displaced from equilibrium, it experiences a net force or torque in the same direction as the displacement from equilibrium.
A system is in neutral equilibrium if its equilibrium is independent of displacement from its original position.
Forces and torques in muscles and joints
Taken from Figure 5.19
Figure 5.19 shows a forearm holding a book and a schematic diagram of am analogous lever system.
The triceps is assumed to be relaxed.
Ex. Calculate the force the biceps muscle must exert to hold the forearm and its load as shown in Fig.
5.19, and compare this force with the weight of the forearm plus its load.
Sol: netτ =0 Pivot: the joint
B b
a rw rF
w 3 1
r2 + =
B b
a F
r w r
w + =
1 3
r2
N
=470 FB
38 . 7 7 . 63 FB 470
= + b =
a w
w !
Muscles exert bigger forces than you might think. Very large forces are also created in the joint. Because the way things are put together, joints and muscles often exert forces in opposite direction. Forces in muscles are largest when their load is a long distance from the joint. Racket sports, such as tennis, exaggerate this effect by extending the arm. Tennis elbow… .
Ex. Do not lift with your back
Consider the person lifting a heavy box with his back, shown in Fig. 5.22. (a) Calculate the force in the back muscle FB needed to support the upper body plus the box and compare this with their weight. The mass of the upper body is 55.0 kg and that of the box is 30.0 kg (b) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force F exerted by the vertebrae on the spine at the indicated pivot point. v
Sol:
(a) netτ =0 Using the perpendicular lever arms given in the figure.
) )(
cm 00 . 8 ( ) m/s 80 . 9 )(
kg cm)(30.0 0
. 50 ( ) m/s 80 . 9 )(
kg cm)(55.0
(35.0 2 + 2 = FB
N 10 20 .
4 × 3
B = F
04 . 833 5
10 20 . 4
FB 3
× = + box =
ub w
w
Taken from Figure 5.22
(b) More important in terms of its damage potential is the force on the vertebraeF . V 0
net net Fy = Fx =
0 0 . 29
sin =
−
−
− ub box B °
Vy w w F
F
N 10 87 .
2 × 3
Vy = F
Similarly FVx −FBcos29.0° =0
N 10 67 .
3 × 3
Vy = F
N 10 66 .
4 3
2
2+ = ×
= Vx Vy
V F F
F
°
− =
=tan 1( ) 38.0
Vx Vy
F θ F
60 . 833 5
10 66 .
FV 4 3
× = + box =
ub w
w
This force is 5.60 times greater than it would be if the person were standing erect. The trouble with the back is not so much that the forces are large – because similar forces are created in our hips, knees and ankles – but that our spines are relatively weak.
Elastic
Taken from Halliday
Stress = γ x Strain
Problems: 5.19, 5.35
Chapter 6 Work, energy and power
Work and kinetic energy
Taken from Halliday
Taken from Halliday
Conservative forces and potential energy
A conservative force is one, like gravity, for which work done by or against it depends only on the starting and ending points of a motion and not on the path taken.
Spring force Fr kxr
−
=
Nonconservative forces: open systems
A crate plus a friction floor
Power
Conservation of energy
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Mechanical energy
Problems: 6.15, 6.33
Chapter 7 Linear Momentum
Linear momentum and force v
p=m
v v
p=∆ = ∆
∆ (m ) m if m is constant
v a
F p m
t m
t =
∆
= ∆
∆
= ∆ net
Elastic collision: the total kinetic energy is conserved.
the total linear momentum is conserved as well.
Inelastic collision: the total kinetic energy is not conserved.
the total linear momentum is conserved.
Elastic collision: Stationary target
Special cases:
Moving targets
Elastic collisions in 2D
Taken from Halliday
Rocket
A system with variable mass
Rocket scientist?
Taken from Halliday
Conservation of the linear momentum
Problems: 7.11, 7.35
Chapter 26 Special Relativity
Albert Einstein
Inertial reference frames: constant velocity
Space and time are actually entangled: the time between two events depends on how far apart they occur, and vice versa.
The Ultimate speed
Taken from Halliday
Testing the speed of light postulate
Neutral pion
Measuring an event
An event is something that happens, to which an observer can assign three space coordinates and one time coordinate.
The speed of light!! We need to construct an imaginary array of measuring rods and clocks thoroughout the observer’s frame.
Taken from Halliday
The relativity of simultaneity
If two observers are in relative motion, they will not, in general, agree as to whether two events are simultaneous. If one observer finds them to be simultaneous, the other generally will not, and conversely.
The relativity of time
An interesting experiment
Sally on the train with constant velocity. She has a light source, a mirror, and a clock.
Sam in the station
They want to measure the time interval between two events: event 1 and event 2.
Taken from Halliday
When two events occur at the same location in an inertial reference frame, the time interval between them, measured in that frame, is called the proper time interval. Measurements of the same time interval from any other inertial reference frame are always greater.
Time dilation!!
Tests:
Microscopic clocks
Macroscopic clicks
Macroscopic clocks
Example: Your starship passes Earth with a relative speed of 0.9990c. After traveling 10.0 year (your time), you stop at lookout post LP13, turn, and then travel back to Earth with the same relative speed.
The trip back takes another 10.0 year (your time). How long does the round trip take according to measurements made on Earth?
Sol:
Your time is the proper time.
Back to the future!!
Taken from Urone The Relativity of length
Galilean and Lorentz transformations
∞
→
c then γ →1
Galilean transformation is equivalent to Lorentz transformation.
Consequences of the Lorentz transformation
The relativity of velocities
Taken from Halliday
Lorentz transformation
Doppler effect for light
Transverse Doppler effect
Taken from Halliday
Relativistic momentum
Relativistic energy
Relativistic kinetic energy
2
2 mc
mc K+ =γ
4 2 2 2 2)
(K +mc =γ m c
4 2 2 4 2 2
2 2Kmc m c m c
K + + =γ
) )(
( ) )(
( )
1 (
2 2 2 2 4
2 4
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2 4
2 2 2
2 m c
v c c v v m c
v c v c c c m Kmc
K = −
−
− −
= −
−
=
+ γ
mv p=γ
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
v c
v c m
c v c
v v m
m
p = −
= −
=γ
2 2
2 4 2 2 2
v c
v c c m
p = −
2 2 2
2 2Kmc p c
K + =
K mc E= 2 +
2 2 2 2
2 4
2
2 m c 2mc K K (pc) (mc )
E = + + = +
Taken from Halliday
Problems: 26.4, 26.19, 26.23
