CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents literature review in the following four fields: the
profession of conference interpreting, theories and assessment of personality, theories
and assessment of anxiety, and lastly, conference interpreters’ personality and anxiety.
2.1 Interpreting as a Profession
2.1.1 Occupational Description of Interpreters and Conference Interpreters
2.1.1.1 Occupational Description of Interpreting in General
Standard occupational description (career definition or job description) for
different career choices has been thoroughly developed worldwide in response to a
growing need for a universal guide available to the general public, private, and public
sectors. Such a classification and description system allows government agencies and
private sectors to produce comparable data. Users of occupational data include
government program managers, industrial and labor relations practitioners, students
considering career training, job seekers, vocational training schools, and employers
wishing to set salary scales or locate a new plant.
An occupational description is compiled by collecting and presenting the task
content, skill and knowledge requirements, working conditions, education, training,
and certification requirements, and employment prospects of an occupation. In the
context of conference interpreting, an occupational description enables us to
understand the employment requirement and skills and knowledge necessary to
perform conference interpreting. Moreover, the occupational description of
interpreting as a profession helps government managers, students considering an
interpreting career, interpreting job seekers, developers of interpretation training
programs, and users of interpreting services to make informed decisions by
understanding the actual job content, working conditions, knowledge, skills,
education, training, and certification associated with professional interpreting
practice.
Standard Occupational Classification by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, USA.
The 2000 Standard Occupational Classification by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, USA (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, SOC) is the result of a cooperative
effort of all U.S. federal agencies that use occupational classification systems to
maximize the usefulness of occupational information collected by the Federal
Government. In the SOC system, all occupations are clustered into 23 major groups,
and the occupation in interpretation and translation (Occupational Classification Code:
27-3091) is classified under “Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media Occupations.”
Note that the occupation of “interpretation” in this context refers to the practice of
interpreting in general; no distinction between types of interpretations such as
conference, legal, medical, or community interpreting is made.
Four sub-categories fall under the “Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media
Occupations” heading, including (1) Art and Design Workers, Entertainers and Performers, (2) Sports and Related Workers, (3) Media and Communication Workers,
and (4) Media and Communication Equipment Workers. In other words, interpreters
and translators (27-3090 Miscellaneous Media and Communication Workers) are classified as
“Media and Communication Workers” under the “Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and
Media Occupations” according to the U.S. Standard Occupational Classification.
Occupational Analysis of Interpreting by U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
The Occupational Outlook Handbook published by the U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics is a recognized source of career information, designed to provide valuable
assistance to individuals making decisions about their future work lives. Revised
every two years, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, working
conditions, the training and education needed, earnings, and expected job prospects in
a wide range of occupations.
According to the Handbook 2004-05 Edition, “interpreters and translators
enable the cross-cultural communication necessary in today society by converting one
language into another. Although some people do both, interpretation and translation
are different professions. Each requires a distinct set of skills and aptitudes, and most
people are better suited for one or the other. While interpreters often work into and
from both languages, translators generally work only into their active language (US
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbok).” Note that, again, no
clear distinction was made in the handbook to differentiate different types of
interpretation such as conference, legal, medical, or community interpretation.
In terms of the job content of interpreters in general, the Handbook also points
out that interpreters convert one spoken language into another—or, in the case of
sign-language interpreters, between spoken communication and sign language. This
requires interpreters to pay attention carefully, understand what is communicated in
both languages, and express thoughts and ideas clearly. Strong research and analytical
skills, mental dexterity, and an exceptional memory are also important.
The first part of an interpreter’s work begins before arriving at the jobsite. The
interpreter must become familiar with the subject matter that the speakers will cover a
task that may involve research to create a list of common words and phrases
associated with the topic. Next, the interpreter usually travels to the location where his
or her services are needed. Physical presence may not be required for some work,
such as telephone interpretation. But it is usually important that the interpreter see the
communicators in order to hear and observe the person speaking and to relay the
message to the other party (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook
Handbok).”
As for the education requirement for interpreters, it is suggested in the
Handbook that “the educational backgrounds of interpreters and translators vary.
Although a bachelor degree is almost always required, interpreters and translators
note that it is acceptable to major in something other than a language. However,
specialized training in how to do the work is generally required. A number of formal
programs in interpreting and translation are available at colleges nationwide and
through non-university training programs, conferences, and courses.
According to the Handbook, many people who work as conference interpreters
or in more technical areas—such as localization, engineering, or finance—have
master degrees, while those working in the community as court or medical
interpreters or translators are more likely to complete job-specific training programs.
Advice for new entrants to the field is to begin getting experience whatever way they
can—even if it means doing informal or unpaid work. Mentoring relationships and
internships are other ways to build skills and confidence. Once interpreters have
gained sufficient experience, they may then move up to more difficult or prestigious
assignments (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbok).”
Occupational Description of Interpreting Service by the America’s Career
InfoNet
America’s Career InfoNet (ACI) is an electronic resource center providing
information for career decisions including wage and employment trends, occupational
requirements, state-by-state labor markets, and employer contacts. What follows is a
brief job description and employment requirements of interpreters provided by the
resource center (ACI).
Knowledge
Knowledge that facilitates interpreters’ practice in the field include (1) Foreign
Language - Knowledge of the structure and content of a foreign language including
the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition and grammar, and
pronunciation; (2) Native Language - Knowledge of the structure and content of one’s
native language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition,
and grammar. (3) Communications and Media - Knowledge of media production,
communication, and dissemination techniques and methods. This includes alternative
ways to inform and entertain via written, oral, and visual media; (4) Sociology and
Anthropology - Knowledge of group behavior and dynamics, societal trends and
influences, human migrations, ethnicity, cultures and their history and origins. (5)
Customer and Personal Service - Knowledge of principles and processes for
providing customer and personal services. This includes customer needs assessment,
meeting quality standards for services, and evaluation of customer satisfaction (ACI).
Skills
Interpreters’ professional skills, according to Career InfoNet, include (1) Active
Listening - Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to
understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not
interrupting at inappropriate times; (2) Speaking - Talking to others to convey
information effectively; (3) Reading Comprehension - Understanding written
sentences and paragraphs in work related documents; (4) Service Orientation -
Actively looking for ways to help people (ACI).
Abilities
Interpreters’ work-related abilities include (1) Oral Comprehension - The ability
to listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words and
speaking so others will understand; (3) Written Comprehension - The ability to read
and understand information and ideas presented in writing; (4) Speech Recognition -
The ability to identify and understand the speech of another person; (5) Speech
Clarity - The ability to speak clearly so others can understand (ACI).
Tasks
Interpreters’ occupation specific tasks include (1) listening to statements of
speaker to ascertain meaning and to remember what is said, using electronic audio
system; (2) reading written material, such as legal documents, scientific works, or
news reports and rewriting material into specified language, according to established
rules of grammar; (3) receiving information on subject to be discussed prior to
interpreting session; (4) translating approximate or exact message of speaker into
specified language, orally or by using hand signs for hearing impaired; (5) Translating
responses from the second language to the first (ACI).
Generalized Work Activities
Generalized work activities of interpreters are (1) interpreting the Meaning of
Information for Others - Translating or explaining what information means and how it
can be used; (2) getting Information - Observing, receiving, and otherwise obtaining
information from all relevant sources; (3) identifying Objects, Actions, and Events -
Identifying information by categorizing, estimating, recognizing differences or
similarities, and detecting changes in circumstances or events; (4) processing
Information - Compiling, coding, categorizing, calculating, tabulating, auditing, or
verifying information or data. The aforementioned work activities can be categorized
into the following details: (1) apply active listening techniques; (2) apply correct
grammar, punctuation, or spelling; (3) apply interpersonal communication techniques;
(4) apply oral or written communication techniques; (5) communicate visually or
verbally; (6) obtain information from individuals; (7) read or write second language;
(8) transcribe spoken or written information; (9) translate written or spoken language
(ACI).
Occupational Description of Interpreters in General: Summary
Based on the occupational definitions noted in the earlier paragraphs, the
following summary can be drawn to present a general description of interpreting as a
career. First and foremost, interpreters in general listen to speakers and translate what
they say. They may interpret consecutively, which means they wait for the speaker to
pause. They may also interpret simultaneously, which means they translate while the
speaker talks. This type of interpreting is more difficult. However, it is required for
international conferences or in court.
Escort or guide interpreters may accompany and translate for large group tours
or work as private escorts for people traveling in foreign countries. Court interpreters
work in courtrooms and translate testimony for defendants who do not understand the
local language. They may also work with attorneys while they meet with clients or
take testimony. Medical interpreting, also called health care interpreting or hospital
interpreting, refers to interpreting in medical settings. It encompasses a variety of
situations, from routine consultation with a physician to emergency procedures, from
prepared childbirth classes to support for complex laboratory testing.
The following occupational tasks are specific to this career: (1) Review
information on topic to be discussed before the interpreting session; (2) listen to
speaker to determine meaning and to remember what is said; (3) convert speaker's
meaning into another language; (4) interpret questions from second language to first.
Interpret responses from first language to second; (5) may interpret simultaneously
while speaker talks or consecutively when speaker pauses.
Skills and abilities of interpreters are listed as follows: (1) interpreters must be
able to listen to others and understand what they say, speak so listeners understand the
information, read and understand work-related materials, and express ideas clearly
when speaking and writing. (2) interpreters must be able to must concentrate and not
be distracted while performing a task; (3) interpreters must be able to find and
organize information; (4) interpreters must be able to make sense of information that
seems without meaning or organization.
Lastly, interpreters need knowledge in the following areas: (1) B Language
(non-mother tongue): knowledge of the meaning, spelling, and use of a language other
than one’s native language; (2) A Language (mother tongue): knowledge of the
meaning, spelling, and use of the native language; (3) communications and media:
knowledge of producing, sharing, and delivering translated information by use of
conference interpreting equipment whenever the situation demands.
2.1.1.2 Occupational Description of Conference Interpreting
As mentioned earlier, conference interpreters can be organized into several types
such as conference, court, medical, community, or escort interpreting based on
interpreters’ area of specialties. Most occupational descriptions about the profession
of interpreting do not make a defined distinction of the aforementioned interpreting
types. However, AIIC, the only worldwide association for professional conference
interpreters, provides a career definition that solely focuses on conference interpreting
(AIIC, Advice to Students Wishing to Become Conference Interpreters). According to
AIIC, conference interpretation requires the interpreters to possess highly professional
skills as a result of long-term and systematic training in addition to exceptional
concentration abilities and an excellent command of language skills.
For a conference interpreter, according to AIIC, to interpret a speech from its
source language is “to transfer its semantic, connotative and aesthetic content into
another language, using the lexical, syntactic and stylistic resources of the second, or
"target" language for that purpose. To interpret means first and foremost to understand
the intended message perfectly. It can then be "detached" from the words used to
convey it in the original and reconstituted, in all its subtlety, in words of the target
language. Interpreting is a constant “to-ing” and “fro-ing” between different ways of
thinking and cultural universes (AIIC, Advice to Students Wishing to Become
Conference Interpreters).”
Conference Interpreting and Working Languages
The Training Committee of AIIC defines the term "language combination" as
“the languages an interpreter uses professionally.” These 'working' languages can be
further subdivided into 'active' and 'passive' languages. Active languages are those
languages into which the interpreter works. An active language can be one of two
kinds, A and B languages. A language is the interpreter's mother tongue (or another
language strictly equivalent to a mother tongue), into which s/he interprets from all
other working languages, generally in the two modes of interpretation, simultaneous
and consecutive. B language is a language into which the interpreter works from one
or more of his or her other languages and which, although not a mother tongue, is a
language of which s/he has perfect command. Passive languages are those languages
of which the interpreter has complete understanding and from which s/he interprets.
These are what interpreters call their C languages, according to AIIC classification
(AIIC, Advice to Students Wishing to Become Conference Interpreters).
In principle, an interpreter's main active language is the mother tongue - the
language in which the interpreter was formally educated and feels completely at ease.
An active language which is not the interpreter's mother tongue can only be acquired
after years of hard work and frequent stays in a country of that language. Usually,
however, the second active language reaches a satisfactory standard only after many
years of practice and is more suited to interpretation of technical discussions where
lexical accuracy is more important than style or very discrete shades of meaning.
Knowledge and Aptitudes
According to the AIIC Training Committee (AIIC, Advice to Students Wishing
to Become Conference Interpreters), candidates of conference interpreting would
benefit from acquiring the following “knowledge”:
(1) A university degree or equivalent;
(2) A complete mastery of the active (target) language(s), i.e. the language(s) into
which the interpreter works and in-depth knowledge of the passive (source)
languages, i.e. languages from which the interpreter works;
(3) Sound knowledge and understanding of current affairs.
It has also been emphasized that candidates with the following aptitudes are likely
to benefit from formal training in interpreting. Those aptitudes include:
(1) The ability to analyze and construe facts;
(2) Speed of reaction and ability to adapt without delay to speakers, situations and
subjects, powers of concentration;
(3) Above-average physical and nervous staying-power;
(4) A pleasant voice and good public-speaking skills;
(5) A high degree of intellectual curiosity, intellectual integrity;
(6) Tact and diplomacy.
Schools and Training
There are a large number of courses and schools around the world which offer
young people who have completed their secondary school studies a course of
language studies to become "translator-interpreters". AIIC Training Committee’s
conducted an extensive survey on schools offering conference interpretation courses
which began in the autumn of 2000. A questionnaire prepared by the Training
Committee of AIIC was sent out to 177 establishments in 29 countries. This
questionnaire provided an idea as to the rough number of conference interpreting
programs worldwide.
As early as 1970, at a symposium organized by UNESCO, organizations in the
UN system arrived at the conclusion that "the training programs that best meet the
needs of the major employers of interpreters are those which seek, in a relatively short
period of time, to teach postgraduate students already possessing the requisite
language skills, the techniques of translation and interpretation". This reflects two
postulates which have always been fundamental to the stance taken by the
International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC): First, candidates to
interpreter training courses must have achieved the requisite level of language
competence in all their working languages before being admitted to training; Second,
interpreter training shall be at least at undergraduate but preferably at postgraduate
level.
2.1.2 Definition Freelance Interpreters versus In-house Interpreters
Interpreters can be generally organized into two categories, in-house and
freelance interpreters, based on the permanence of their employers. In-house
interpreters in general are those who provide interpreting services to a specific
institution or organization as an internal employee. On the other hand, freelance
interpreters are those who provide interpreting services on a case-by-case basis
without a permanent employer or permanent commitment in a particular sphere or
activity.
The International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) has made a
clear distinction between freelance and staff / in-house interpreters:
Depending on language combination, a freelance has considerable freedom of
choice and greater mobility: the interpreter's working life can be organized
according to preference, accepting or refusing offers of work. As a freelance, the
interpreter works for a range of organizations, public and private, is likely to
cover a wide variety of topics and to come into contact with very diverse groups.
The staff interpreter, or the in-house interpreter, on the other hand, has a steady
job and the various benefits that go with it. Having only one employer s/he
becomes part of a group and can become involved in the organization’s activities.
Life as a staff interpreter is more predictable. This notwithstanding, it should be
clearly understood that being a freelance or a staff interpreter is not simply a
matter of choice. The great majority of conference interpreters work free lance
(AIIC, Advice to Students Wishing to Become Conference Interpreters).”
In-house interpreters work on industry-specific or corporation-specific
interpreting assignments as an internal employee of that institution. In-house
interpreters’ labor product is often statistically computed as an integral part of the
organization’s output. In view of the fact that the great majority of conference
interpreters work free lance, and that in-house interpreters’ service is computed as
product within an institution, this researcher has chosen to focus the target population
on freelance interpreters as opposed to in-house interpreters.
2.1.3 Definition of Conference Interpreters vs. Escort, Court, and Medical
Interpreters
Table 2.1 shows how conference, escort, court, and legal interpreters differ in
job content. The table categorizes general interpreting services into conference
interpretation and non-conference interpretation. Conference interpretation is further
organized into two streams: simultaneous and consecutive interpretation.
Simultaneous interpretation is mostly provided during bilateral negotiations,
international conferences, or multilingual business meetings. Simultaneous
interpretation is transmitted electronically to a group of listeners and speakers just a
few seconds after the words or phrases are spoken in the source language. Two or
three interpreters are needed at the same time to work in the same language booth.
Consecutive conference interpretation is mostly provided to facilitate communication
during formal negotiations, professional workshops and symposiums. In short
consecutive interpretation, the speaker pauses after every two or three sentences to
allow time for the interpreter to render the speaker's remarks into the other language.
On the other hand, in long consecutive interpretation, the speaker pauses after
speaking continuously for several minutes for the interpreter to interpret. The
interpreter may have to rely on his or her memory and efficient note-taking techniques
to render an accurate interpretation. In consecutive interpretation, the interpreter
becomes a more integral member of the meeting since he or she is always in close
proximity to the meeting participants.
Non-conference interpretation is further divided into three categories: escort,
court, and medical interpretation. In the context of Taiwan market, guide or escort
interpreters accompany either local visitors abroad or foreign visitors visiting Taiwan
to ensure that they are able to communicate during their stay. These three kinds of
interpreters work on a variety of subjects, both on an informal basis and on a
professional level. Most of their interpretation is consecutive (US Bureau of Labor
Statistics).
Court interpreters help people appearing in court who are unable or unwilling to
communicate in English. These workers must remain detached from the content of
their work and not alter or modify the meaning or tone of what is said. Legal
translators must be thoroughly familiar with the language and functions of the U.S.
judicial system, as well as other countries’ legal systems. Court interpreters work in a
variety of legal settings, such as attorney-client meetings, preliminary hearings,
depositions, trials, and arbitration hearings. Success as a court interpreter requires an
understanding of both legal terminology and colloquial language. In addition to
interpreting what is said, court interpreters also may be required to translate written
documents and read them aloud, also known as sight translation (US Bureau of Labor
Statistics).
Providing language services to healthcare patients with limited Chinese
proficiency is the realm of medical interpreters and translators in Taiwan. Medical
interpreters help patients to communicate with doctors, nurses, and other medical staff.
Medical interpreters need a strong grasp of medical and colloquial terminology in
both languages, along with cultural sensitivity regarding how the patient receives the
information. They must remain detached but aware of the patient’s feelings and pain
(US Bureau of Labor Statistics).
Table 2.1 Categorization of Interpretation Services
Types of Interpretation Description of Job Content
Escort interpretation
Provided to assist the communication during visits, interviews, site tours, and discussions where 1 or 2 participants speak a different language from the rest.
Court
Interpretation
Court interpretation (or legal interpretation) refers to interpretation that takes place in a legal setting such as courtroom or an attorney's office, wherein some proceeding or activity related to law is conducted Non-
conference Interpretation
Medical Interpretation
Medical or hospital interpretation is mostly used to assist cross-cultural and linguistic communication within a medical institute; it may encompass a variety of situations, from routine consultation with a physician to emergency procedures, from prepared childbirth classes to support for complex laboratory testing
Consecutive Interpretation
Mostly provided to facilitate communication during formal negotiations, professional workshops, symposiums and so on.
The speaker pauses after speaking continuously for several sentences or minutes for the interpreter to render the talk into another language.
The interpreter becomes a more integral member of the meeting since he or she is always in close proximity to the meeting participants.
Conference Interpretation
Simultaneous Interpretation
Simultaneous interpretation is mostly provided during bilateral negotiations, international conferences, or multilingual business meetings.
It is transmitted electronically to a group of listeners and speakers just a few seconds after the words or phrases are spoken in the source language.
Two or three interpreters are needed at the same time to work in the same language booth.
Source: Compiled by this study
2.1.4 Conference Interpreters in Taiwan
A survey study of the interpretation and translation industry in Taiwan had been
completed by the Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation of National
Normal Taiwan University and Taiwan Institute of Economic Research in 2004
(Government Information Bureau). The study is the first comprehensive industry
survey which targets the entire population of conference interpreters in Taiwan. Data
regarding Taiwan-based conference interpreters’ population, gender and age
distribution, education and training, work experience and work load, career portfolio,
types of interpreting assignments, and types of conference themes were collected
through extensive interviews with conference interpreters. What follows is a summary
of the research findings.
By way of snowballing, the survey generated a population of 53 freelance
conference interpreters (herein referred to as “interpreters”) in Taiwan and 38
interpreters agreed to participate in the survey. 42% of the population is represented
by male interpreters, with the other 58% by female. The majority of interpreters (23)
fell into the age group of 31-40. The average age of interpreters in Taiwan is 40 years
old.
All interpreters surveyed have a bachelor’s degree, and 68.4% of them have a
master’s degree. 63.2% of interpreters had received professional training in translation
and interpretation studies.
Interpreters in Taiwan have worked an average of 9.9 years as conference
interpreters with no significant gender difference. The interpreters surveyed provide a
total of 1828 days of interpreting service annually. 52.6% of the interpreters identified
Chinese-English as their language combination, followed by 7.9% with
Chinese-Japanese combination. All interpreters surveyed indicated that conference
interpreting is not the only source of income. Their career portfolio is made up of
conference interpreting along with translation and/or teaching of T&I (translation and
interpretation) courses.
Consecutive and simultaneous conference interpreting account for the majority
of conference interpreters’ interpreting assignments. The number of simultaneous
assignments, according to those surveyed, is 1.5 times that of consecutive assignments.
71% of the interpreters almost never work as escort interpreters.
2.2 Personality
2.2.1 Definition of Personality
One reason why humans use the word “personality” appears to be the desire to
convey a sense of consistency or continuity in someone’s qualities. A second reason
people use the word personality is to convey the sense that whatever the person is
doing (thinking or feeling) is originating from within. Yet a third reason why the
term personality is used is because it often conveys the sense that a few salient
characteristics can serve as a kind of summary for what a person is like (Pervin,
1980). This patchwork of reasons moves us closer to having a definition for it. That
is, the concept of personality conveys a sense of consistency, internal causality, and
personal distinctiveness. In other words, the definition of personality derived from
common usage of the term can be summarized as those characteristics of a person or
of people generally that counts for consistent patterns of response to situations
(Pervin, 1980).
Definition of the term “personality” can be found in dictionaries (Appendix 1)
but they sometimes tend to overlook the intricate interplay among the psychological,
sociological, and biological constructs that underlie an individual’s personality. It
would therefore be helpful to refer to the definitions provided by personality
psychologists and theorists in history (Table 2.2). Kurt Lewin, one of the founding
fathers of social, work, and organizational psychology stated that personality is the
system which underlies observable behavior which is a result of the momentary
condition of the individual and the structure of the psychological situation (Lewin,
1953). Gordon Allport, a pioneer trait theorist in personality psychology defined
personality as the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological
systems that determine the individual’s unique adjustment to their environment
(Carver and Scheier, 2000). Henry A. Murray, an interactionistic personality theorist
who focused on the in-depth, multidisciplinary study of individual lives believed
that personality is an integrated, dynamic nature of the individual as a complex
organism responding to a specific environment with importance of the needs and
motivation of the individual in this process (Hjelle and Ziegler, 1992). Harry Stack
Sullivan, a pioneer in interactionistic psychology in 1953 explained that personality
is the relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations which
characterize a human life (Berger, 2003). Salvatore Maddi, a personality and
consulting psychologist suggested that personality is a stable set of characteristics
and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the general
psychological behavior (thoughts, feelings, and actions) of people over time (Carver
and Scheier, 2000). Personality theorists Hall and Lindzey believe that no
substantive definition of personality can be applied with any generality; personality
is defined by the particular empirical concepts which are a part of the theory of
personality employed by the observer (Hall and Lindzey, 1978). Hjelle & Ziegler,
on the other hand, held that personality represents an evolving process subject to a
variety of internal and external influences, including genetic and biological
propensities, social experiences, and changing environmental circumstances. (Hjelle
and Ziegler, 1992). Carver and Scheier expanded Allport’s concept by breaking
down the existing working definition of personality into six points by emphasizing
that personality has organization and processes tied to the physical body and is a
causal effect that shows up in patterns, reoccurrences, and consistencies. Personality
is displayed in many ways, in behaviors, thoughts and feelings (Carver and Scheier,
2000).
Table 2.2 Definition of “Personality” by Personality Psychology Theorists
Theorist Definition of Personality
Kurt Lewin Personality is the system which underlies observable behavior which is a result of the momentary condition of the individual and the structure of the psychological situation.
Gordon Allport Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine the individual’s unique adjustment to their environment.
Henry A.
Murray
Personality is an integrated, dynamic nature of the individual as a complex organism responding to a specific environment with importance of the needs and motivation of the individual in this process.
Harry Stack Sullivan
Personality is the relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations which characterize a human life.
Salvatore Maddi Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the general psychological behavior (thoughts, feelings, and actions) of people over time.
Hall and Lindzey
No substantive definition of personality can be applied with any generality. Personality is defined by the particular empirical concepts which are a part of the theory of personality employed by the observer.”
Hjelle & Ziegler Personality represents an evolving process subject to a variety of internal and external influences, including genetic and biological propensities, social experiences, and changing environmental circumstances.
Carver and Scheier
Personality isn’t just bits and pieces, it has organization;
Personality is active, it has processes;
Personality is a psychological concept but is inextricably tied to the physical body;
Personality is a causal effect, it helps determine how the person relates to the world;
Personality shows up in patterns, reoccurrences, and consistencies.
Personality is displayed in many ways, in behaviors, thoughts and feelings.
2.2.2 Personality Theories
2.2.2.1 Perspectives on Personality
The theories of personality that has developed over the years can be seen as
falling into several groups. Each group is characterized by a general viewpoint on
how best to think of human nature. Each group’s orientation toward human nature
differs from those of the other group. In the field of personality psychology, the
groups are termed as orientation or “perspective” on personality. A perspective is a set
of orientating assumptions within which theories can be devised or understood. The
following seven perspectives on personality provide an overview of the general
groupings and underlying theoretical framework of major personality theories.
Psychoanalytic theory, developed initially by Sigmund Freud during the later
part of the 1900s and during the early decades of the 21st century, formed the
foundation of modern psychology. It is based on the idea that personality is a set of
internal forces that compete and conflict with each other. Much of the theory and
research that came later, even if it disagreed with psychoanalytic thinking, was
nevertheless shaped and influenced by its perspectives. The broad, unique
contribution of psychoanalytic theory is the suggestion that much of the explanation
for human behavior, which is often bizarre and seemingly contradictory, lies largely
hidden in the unconscious, and is the result of how a person negotiates conflicting,
deep-rooted desires and instincts (Hall and Lindzey, 1978; Carver and Scheier,
2000; Lewin, 1953).
Biological perspective on personality is most closely linked to the
dispositional perspective since both attempt to identify underlying, consistent
individual differences. The perspective emphasizes that personality is genetically
based- each person’s disposition is inherited. The main areas of investigation in
terms of biological approach is the relationship between genetics and personality,
the evolutionary explanations and evidence for the origins of personality,
neuropsychology and personality, and other biological functions and processes
which influence human psychology and personality (Hall and Lindzey, 1978;
Carver and Scheier, 2000; Lewin, 1953).
The learning perspective emphasizes that one’s personality essentially arose
from the molding and learning experiences one receives in the environment - i.e.,
one’s patterns of behavior are shaped by experience. Personality, in other words, is
an accumulated set of learned tendencies over a lifetime The learning perspective
draws on the traditions of behaviorism as well as social psychology. The social
learning perspective implies that personality is “susceptible to molding, grinding,
and polishing by the events that form the person’s unique and individual history
(Hall and Lindzey, 1978; Carver and Scheier, 2000; Lewin, 1953).
The phenomenological perspective, and particularly the humanistic
perspectives, sees humankind as being intrinsically good and self-perfecting. The
roots of the perspective can be traced to two core ideas. First, everyone’s subjective
experience is important, valuable, and meaningful- and unique. Second, people tend
naturally toward perfection and people are seen as being drawn towards growth,
health, self-sufficiency, and maturity. Once a person is provided with a nurturing
outer and inner environment, growth towards our higher selves occurs naturally. In
this view, a person’s personality is what he has learned up till now(Hall and
Lindzey, 1978; Carver and Scheier, 2000; Lewin, 1953).
The cognitive perspective has evolved hand in hand in the development of
computers since mid-1950. Essentially, the cognitive perspective of personality is
the idea that people are who they are because of the way they think, including how
information is attended to, perceived, analyzed, interpreted, encoded and retrieved.
People tend to have habitual thinking patterns which are characterized as
personality. In this view, one’s personality would be one’s characteristic cognitive
patterns. In other words, one’s personality reflects certain kinds of information
processing events. Second, personality can also be seen as a person's mental
organization, i.e., it is a person’s self-regulating systems which sets goals and
checks on progress toward these goals (Hall and Lindzey, 1978; Carver and Scheier,
2000; Lewin, 1953).
The dispositional perspective is based on the idea that people have relatively
stable qualities (dispositions) that are displayed in different settings. These
dispositions are shown outwardly in diverse ways but they are somehow deeply
embedded in the person. Human nature, from this perspective is a set of relatively
permanent qualities built into this person (Hall and Lindzey, 1978; Carver and
Scheier, 2000; Lewin, 1953). In this research, the dispositional perspective serves
as the theoretic basis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) used to evaluate
subjects’ personality traits; therefore, the dispositional perspective will be discussed
separately in Section 2.2.2.2 to help us advance our understanding of the underlying
assumptions and applicability of MBTI.
2.2.2.2 Dispositional perspectives and Carl Jung’s Theory of Typology
The dispositional perspective is the traditional, classic approach to the
psychological study of personality. The approach creates systems for classification
and describing psychological characteristics for which people differ consistently
between situations and over time. The “trait” approach most clearly emphasizes the
dispositional perspective but another way to approach the concept of dispositions is
to consider people as “types” or alternatively to view people’s dispositions in terms
of their enduring motivational characteristics that vary in strength from person to
person (i.e. their needs and motives) (Hall and Lindzey, 1978; Carver and Scheier,
2000; Lewin, 1953).
Carl Jung’s Theory of Typology
Jungian psychological types are probably the most widely used and amongst
the best-known type theories. Jung's typology emerges from Jung's deep, holistic
philosophy and psychology about the person. Jung viewed the ultimate psychological
task as the process of individuation, based on the strengths and limitations of one's
psychological type (Jung, 1971).
Jung saw universal `types' in human personality. These types can be found in
all of us but there tends to be one predominant type or normal mode of organizing our
experience. The types are both complementary and competitive. One can gain insight
into oneself and others by understanding the structure that Jung described but one
must not interpret it too narrowly or literally.
Anyone who wants to know the human psyche will learn next to nothing from experimental psychology. He would be better advised to abandon exact science, put away his scholar's gown, bid farewell to his study, and wander with human heart throughout the world. There in the horrors of prisons, lunatic
asylums and hospitals, in drab suburban pubs, in brothels and gambling-hells, in the salons of the elegant, the Stock Exchanges, socialist meetings, churches, revivalist gatherings and ecstatic sects, through love and hate, through the experience of passion in every form in his own body, he would reap richer stores of knowledge than text-books a foot thick could give him, and he will know how to doctor the sick with a real knowledge of the human soul. -Carl Jung, 1971
Carl Jung (1875-1961) founded analytic psychology at the turn of the last
century. He constructed his concepts on the evidence derived from his clinical
observations and personal experience, including an extended period of deep and
intense self-analysis (Jung, 1971). One of Jung’s most memorable contribution is that,
based on his psychoanalytic theory, he developed a personality typology which
begins with the distinction between introversion and extroversion. In fact, the
personality typology he developed has become so popular that some people aren’t
aware that he did anything else (Boeree, Personality Theories).
Introversion and Extroversion
Jung begins his description by noting two approaches to evolutionary
success. One can engage in producing many offspring with few defenses and a short
life. Or, on the contrary, one can, at the expense of lower fertility, invest more in the
individual’s defenses and a longer life. This fundamental tradeoff can appear in
many forms. Some individuals limit their activities and carry them on intensively.
activities and of necessity less intense. They are extroverts. The introversion and
extroversion are attitude-types (Jung, 1971).
Introverts, according to Jung, are people who prefer their internal world of
thoughts, feelings, fantasies, dreams, and so on, while extroverts prefer the external
world of things and people and activities. The words have become confused with
ideas like shyness and sociability, partially because introverts tend to be shy and
extroverts tend to be sociable. But Jung intended for them to refer more to whether a
person ("ego") more often faced toward the persona and outer reality, or toward the
collective unconscious and its archetypes.
The Four Functions: Sensing, Thinking, Intuiting, and Feeling (Jung, 1971)
Whether people are introverts or extroverts, as Jung argued, they need to deal
with the world, inner and outer. And everyone has his preferred ways of dealing
with it, ways he is comfortable with and good at. Jung suggested there are four basic
ways, or functions:
The first is sensing. Sensing means getting information by means of the senses.
A sensing person is good at looking, listening and generally getting to know the
world. Jung called this one of the irrational functions, meaning that it involved
perception rather than judging of information.
The second function is thinking. Thinking means evaluating information or
ideas in a rational and logical fashion. Jung called this a rational function, meaning
that it involves decision making or judging, rather than simple intake of information.
The third is intuiting. Intuiting is a kind of perception that works outside of the
usual conscious processes. It is irrational or perceptual, like sensing, but comes from
the complex integration of large amounts of information, rather than simple seeing
or hearing. Jung said it was like seeing around corners.
The fourth is feeling. Feeling, like thinking, is a matter of evaluating
information, this time by weighing one's overall, emotional response. Jung calls it
rational, obviously not in the usual sense of the word.
Myers-Briggs developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator based on Carl Jung’s
theory of Typology. MBTI is widely used in business and training, etc. and which
provides information and exercises for better understanding one's own personality
type and others with whom the individual interacts and works. It is the psychometric
instrument used in this research to evaluate conference interpreters’ personality and
will be thoroughly discussed in 2.2.5.2 “Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers’
MBTI.”
2.2.3 Assessing Personality: Principles and Instruments
2.2.3.1 Types of Personality Assessment Tools
All theories of personality assume that individual differences exist and can be
measured. This assumption is critical to personality assessment. An assessment
procedure is a way of gaining information about a person. More specifically,
assessment involves the systematic observation of behavior under specific conditions
and relative to specific stimuli. We gain insight into the nature of personality and gather
data relevant to a personality theory through observing the responses of individuals to
defined conditions (Pervin, 1980).
Methods for assessing personality can be generally organized into three
categories: projective test, behavioral assessment, and self-report personality tests.
The three categories are discussed in the following paragraphs (Carver and Scheier,
2000; Huang, 1999).
1. Projective Personality Test
The underlying assumption of projective personality tests is that ambiguous
nature allows individuals to project their feelings, desires, needs, and attitudes toward
the stimulus. In projective personality tests, an ambiguous or disguised stimulus is
presented to the test taker to ask the individual to describe it or tell a story about it.
Examples of projective personality tests include Rorschach Inkblot Test and Illustrative
TAT Card (Carver and Scheier, 2000; Huang, 1999).
2. Self-Report Personality Test
The underlying assumption of the self-report test is that the content of the test is a
good indicator of an individual’s personality. The individual is asked to indicate their
personality traits through verbal or written form. Standard questionnaires, often derived
through factor analysis, reflect this approach. Examples of using psychometric
instruments as self-evaluation personality tests include Cattell 16 Personality Factor
Inventory, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (Carver and Scheier, 2000; Huang, 1999).
3. Behavioral Personality Assessment
With behavioral personality assessment, researchers or clinicians: obtain objective
information about individual’s personality by directly observing the individual’s
behavior. Unlike the tests previously considered, the emphasis on specific behaviors
tied to defined situational characteristics forms the basis of behavioral assessment. One
example of the test is the Behavioral Assessment Questionnaire Inventories (Carver and
Scheier, 2000; Huang, 1999).
For the purpose of this research, the researcher has excluded the possibility of
using behavioral personality assessment and projective personality tests to evaluate
the subjects’ personality because the administration of the tests in question and the
ensuing interpretation of test results would require professional training in personality
psychology that the researcher lacks. As Pervin pointed out, “an assessment technique
that depends on the skill of the examiner has limited utility- and is in particular
difficulty when the qualities of exceptional examiners are hard to define and few rules
can be developed for formalizing their assessment and prediction procedures (Pervin,
1980).” Self-report personality tests, which employ trivial questions about simple
surface behaviors to tap underlying preferences that might not be elicited directly,
come with instruction on administration and scoring, and extensive statistical data
pertaining to the standardization sample and normative data. With self-report tests, the
examiners are capable of administering the test to establish, compare, explain and
analyze the test result without much fear of misinterpretation and misadministration.
2.2.3.2 Selecting Psychometric Instrument for the Research
To select a suitable psychometric instrument for this research, the researcher
investigated the most widely used and trusted personality evaluation tools both in
Taiwan and the U.S. Table 2.4 shows the instruments most commonly cited in
psychology textbooks and by research centers in the U.S. The author, number of
subscales, and revision of the tests were listed in Table 2.4.
Table 2.3 Most Frequently Cited Self-Report Personality Tests in Major Psychology Textbook and Research Centers
Test Watkins A&U M&D K&S
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
v v v v
California Personality Inventory
v v v v
Edwards Personal Preference Schedule
v v v v
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
v v
Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
v v v v
NEO-PI-R v v v
Source: Huang, 1999: 431
Table 2.4 Most Frequently Cited Self-Report Personality Tests by Major Psychology Textbook and Research Centers: Authors
Test Name Author Sub-scales
Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMIT)
Starke R. Hathaway and J. Charmley Mckinley, 1934
10 clinical scales
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
Harrison Gough, 1957 20 subscales with 480 questions
Edwards Personal Preference Schedule
Allen L. Edwards 1953
15 scales with 225 questions
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs,1985
4 scales with 95 to 166 questions
Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
Raymond Cattell, 1949 16 scales
NEO NEO-PI-R
Revised by P. T. Costa, Jr. & R. R. McCrae, 1992
30 scales Source: Compiled by this study
Table 2.5 illustrates the various self-report personality tests currently
available in Taiwan (Huang, 1999; Goh, 1996). They are Gordon Personality Profile,
Myers-Briggs Personality Test, 16 PF, Basic Personality Inventory, KMHQ, and Lai’s
Personality Inventory.
Table 2.5 Self-Report Personality Tests Available in Taiwan
Test Name Author Sub-scales
Gordon Personality Profile L. V. Gordon, 1963.
Chinese version by Y.J. Lu, 1976; C.M. L, 1982; and J.H. Huang.
14 subscales
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs, 1985. Chinese version by H.J. Huang in 1991and H.M. Tzeng in 1999.
4 scales with 95 to 166 questions depending on version choice
Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire.
Raymond Cattell, 1949.
Chinese version by J. R.
Mei and Y. H. Liu, 1976
16 scales
Basic Personality Inventory Jackson, 1996
Chinese version by S. D.
Wu, S. T. Lin, J. D. Wang, and J.Z. Kuo, 1998
10 scales with 150 questions
KMHQ Personality Inventory
(locally developed)
Ke, Yong-He, 1998 38 scales with 300 questions
Lai’s Personality Inventory (locally developed)
Lai, bao-Jen, 1992 13 scales with 130 questions
Source: Huang, 1999: 452-465; Goh, 1996: 517-518.
Narrowing Down the Choices
This study seeks to analyze and interpret Taiwan-based conference interpreters’
personality by comparing their profile with that of workers in different occupational
settings both domestically and internationally. It is evident that personality typology is
not particularly useful without norms that place the trait in context. Normative data
are important in understanding the relative importance of traits within an individual’s
personality profile. In other words, in order to generate a cross-industry and
cross-cultural comparison of the subjects’ profile, the researcher evaluated the
different options available in Taiwan based on the following criteria:
(1) The personality test must provide overseas normative data to which the research
findings can be compared. This criterion implied that the test will have to provide
established population distribution, mean scores, and norm reference of test result
based on domestic as well as overseas populations. Tests which are exclusively
applied to the domestic population and therefore lack cross-cultural norm
references are not considered for this reason.
(2) The test must provide normative data regarding workers in other occupational
settings, which research findings can be compared to. The test that serves this
purpose would have to be one that offers its users comparative data and normative
scores derived from workers in different industries after being extensively used in
a wide variety of occupational settings.
In view of the first criterion, the researcher has opted to focus on tests that are commonly used both in Taiwan and the U.S. With a simple comparison of Table 2.3, Table 2.5, and Table 2.6, the researcher was able to limit the choices to two personality instruments: the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Cattell 16
Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), both of which are extensively used in Taiwan and the U.S..
16 PF was translated into Chinese by Lui and Mei in 1976 with population
distribution and normative scores established based on male and female Taiwanese
college students. No revision of the Chinese version has been attempted during the
past three decades. Its application in Taiwan has been fairly limited. This may be due
to the fact that its publishing company in Taiwan is not a professional organization
that specializes in the publication and distribution of psychometric instruments
(Huang, 1999).
On the contrary, the MBTI (G Form) has been commonly used in Taiwan after it
was translated into Chinese by Huang in 1990 (Huang and Huang, 1992). 1059
Taiwanese college students were tested with the translated version to verify its
validity and reliability. In 1991, the Chinese MBTI was further administered to 950
professionals across various professional settings including education, counseling,
accounting, insurance, information engineering, business management, law, and
advertising. The relationship between personality type and professional preference
was investigated and illustrated in this extensive research. Many ensuing studies had
been dedicated to establishing personality profile of practitioners in different
occupations by using the MBTI.
In conclusion, the researcher has chosen the MBTI Chinese version for the
purpose of the study for the following reasons first; the MBTI is available in the U.S.
and Taiwan. Users of MBTI will be able to compare the test results with domestic and
U.S. normative data. Second, MBTI offers comparison data and normative scores
derived from Taiwanese workers in different industries after being tested in a wide
variety of occupational settings. Personality profile of subjects in this research can be
compared to that in other industries in order to understand the most dominant
personality presented by practitioners of the profession. Evaluating interpreters’
personality with MBTI enables the researcher to generate a cross-industry and
cross-cultural comparison of subjects’ personality profile.
It is worth noting that the revised edition of the manual for the MBTI (Myers
and McCaulley, 1985) is, in the words of reviewer DeVito (1985), “extremely clear
and complete”. In addition to the usual information about administration and scoring,
and extensive statistical data pertaining to the standardization sample, reliability, and
validity of the instrument, the manual contains a full exposition of the Indicator, the
underlying theory, and a history of its development. A considerable amount of
information to guide interpretation and verification of results and use of type in
counseling, career counseling, and education is also included. In the following
paragraph, the theoretical framework, four scales, and the interpretation of the MBTI
will be discussed in detail.
2.2.4 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: Introduction
The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator is a questionnaire based on the
psychological teachings of Carl Gustav Jung. Isabel Briggs Myers' and her mother,
Katharine Briggs, in 1943 developed the MBTI model around the ideas and theories
of psychologist Carl Jung. Over three decades since its inception, the MBTI or
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has evolved and been perfected through continual test
research and development of ever more accurate questions (DeVito, 1985). The
Indicator is an inventory or psychological instrument rather than a test- as a test
suggests right and wrong answers. All answers chosen in the MBTI are equally
desired. This Indicator has been developed over decades of rigorous scientific
validation and is the most widely used of any Personality Indicator. More than two
million MBTI tests are used worldwide each year by individuals and organizations,
including 89 of the Fortune 100 (Consulting Psychologist Press).
2.2.4.1 Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers’ MBTI
Jung argued that one’s psychological characteristics can be categorized by use
of three criteria: the E-I Scale, S-N Scale, and the T-F Scale, as previously mentioned.
However, Isabel Briggs Myers, in her studies of people and extensive reading of
Jung's theories, believed that there are four, instead of three, primary ways people
differed from one another. She labeled these differences "preferences".
According to Barbara Ring (Ring, Introduction to Personality Type and
Personality), unlike most personality inventories, initially designed to facilitate
research interests and later adapted for general use, Isabel Briggs Myers devoted her
entire life to the development of an instrument that would be valuable to the largest
possible number of people. Myers' passionate interest in personality type was sparked
and cultivated by her mother's (Katharine Briggs) study of personality type and
discovery that Jung's typology fit well with her own observations. The devastating
effects of World War II aroused a strong desire in Myers to take some action to
promote understanding and maintain harmony among people with diverse cultural
and personality differences (Pervin, 1980).
In 1942, Briggs and Myers began to develop items to measure attitudes,
perceptions, feelings, and behaviors according to their understanding of personality
type. Myers continued her work with unflagging energy and devotion, submitting the
items to empirical testing and gathering a vast amount of data, revising test forms
accordingly, publishing the first version of the MBTI Manual in 1962, revising it in
1985 (Myers and McCaulley, 1985), and completing Gifts Differing (Myers and
Myers, 1980), a book on personality differences for the general public, shortly before
her death at 83 years of age. Myers' desire for the MBTI is summed up by her
comment to her associate, Dr. McCaulley, "You psychologists focus on what's wrong
with people. The MBTI is about what's right with people. We must not hurt the MBTI
by making it look like your other clinical instruments (McCaulley, 1998)."
Katharine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers in 1943 added the
fourth scale of Judging-Perceiving (J-P Scale) to Jung’s original dimensions. Myers
and Briggs included this extra dimension in order to help determine which of a
person's “Functions” is superior. They argue that those who are inclined toward the
“judging” end on the J-P Scale are more careful, perhaps inhibited, in their lives,
whereas those who prefer “perceiving” tend to be more spontaneous, sometimes
careless.
2.2.4.2 The Four Scales of MBTI: Basic Model
With the theoretic contribution of Carl Jung along with Katharine Briggs and
Isabel Briggs Myers’ ensuing perfection, the Myers Briggs Type Indicator was
transformed into a four-scale basic model which can be summarized as follows (Table
2.6).
