第五章 結論與建議
第二節 建議
一、對研究的建議
本研究依據研究結果，對後續學術研究提出以下建議。
（一）廣納多元的身體意象面向
本研究旨在探討男同志身體意象與心理健康的關聯性。本研究針對男 同志的肥胖及肌肉等兩項身材特徵切入，後續研究可納入其他外貌特徵
（例如：身高）。此外，本研究較關注身體意象對心理層面的影響，不過極 端的身體意象亦可能帶來個體不適切的行為（例如：過度節食），甚至是飲 食疾患，值得後續進一步探究。
（二）考量男同志的性別角色
此外，身為性傾向少數的男同志群體，面對主流的社會期待與文化框 架時，可能更花心力在調整、潤飾、轉化自己的性別角色。或許未來可以 從性傾向認同、性別氣質、或是陽剛氣概等角度，進行男同志身體意象的 探討。
（三）探討身體意象的社會文化因素
基於身體意象為個體與社會文化互動的產物，唯本研究較疏於社會文 化層面對身體意象的影響。諸如大眾傳播媒體、同儕、男同志社群、或是 親密關係中的伴侶，皆可能是影響身體意象的社會文化因素，國外已有部 分研究考量上述層面對男同志身體意象的探討，不過本土尚缺乏關注，值
72
得另闢專文分析。
二、對實務工作者的建議
本研究依據研究結果，對健康促進教育及心理諮商等實務工作者提出 以下建議。
（一）意識外貌體態對男同志心理福祉的重要性
身處於關注身材外觀的次文化，男同志傾向對自己的身材有不滿意的 感受，並造成低落情緒、低度自我評價等負向結果。實務工作者在面對男 同志群體時，可以從男同志對外貌體態的態度、男同志的健身行為等運動 風格，以及在男同志次文化的社群互動經驗等方面著手，適時在健康促進 課程及心理諮商時，融入身體意象的議題。
（二）訴求健康、負責與尊重身體的正向觀點
健康促進教育及心理諮商等實務工作者，在身體意象的課程實施，或 是涉及身體意象議題的晤談時，一但發現男同志在外貌體態承受身材歧視 或自我否定等負向經驗，除了提供男同志情感支持，更重要的是，從男同 志學習者或案主的生活經驗，引導身體意象的批判性思考，而非一昧接收 充斥在社會文化的身體價值觀。並催化男同志形成看待自我身體的正向觀 點，強調對身體的健康、負責與尊重。
（三）協助男同志建立互助團體
除了健康促進課程與心理諮商等專業介入，實務工作者亦不可忽視男
73
同志在社群內彼此情感連結的力量。相關研究指出，相近身材的男同志有 較高的機率形成社群，實務工作者集結對身體意象議題有相似需求的男同 志學習者或案主形成團體，在團體成員共同的關切之下，藉由分享彼此共 同經驗性知識、相互給予情緒支持、交換問題解決策略，甚至從中培養團 體領導者，以達事半功倍之效。
74
75
參考文獻
王大維（2010）。成年前期男性氣概建構之論述分析（未出版之博士論文）。國立
彰化師範大學，彰化縣。
吳明隆、涂金堂（2012）。SPSS 與統計應用分析（二版）。臺北市：五南。
呂學超（2008）。大專男性追求肌肉發達的身體意象與自尊、生活品質之探索研
究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣大學，臺北市。
巫博瀚、賴英娟、施慶麟（2013）。「Rosenberg 自尊量表」之試題衡鑑：評等量 尺模型的應用。測驗學刊，62，263-289。
林純德（2009）。成為一隻「熊」－台灣男同志「熊族」的認同型塑與性／性別
／身體展演。台灣社會研究季刊，76，57-117。
張小虹（1998）。性／別研究讀本。臺北市：麥田。
張歆祐（2006）。男同志伴侶關係發展歷程之研究（未出版之博士論文）。國立彰
化師範大學，彰化縣。
莊育碩（2016）。「肌」不可失?－男同志身體及情慾之初探（未出版之碩士論文）。
國立臺北大學，臺北市。
陳嘉倩（2012）。臺灣大學生之性別、性取向、身體意象與健康相關生活品質之
關係（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣大學，臺北市。
曾柔鳴、黃財尉、盧奐均、林佩蓉、李美遠（2014）。心理健康構念的後設分析 與測量模式檢證。測驗學刊，61，1-26。
馮玉兒（2011）。彩虹世界─男同志愛戀健美體魄與健身文化之初探（未出版之
碩士論文）。國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
黃囇莉、張錦華（2005）。台灣民眾的身體意象及其預測因子：人際壓力、媒體 信任作為中介變項。中華心理學刊，47(3)，269-287。
76
楊孟麗、謝水南（譯）（2013）。教育研究法：研究設計實務（第二版）（原作者：
J.R. Fraenkel, N.E. Wallen, & Helen H. Hyun）。臺北市：心理。（原著出版年：
2009）
蔡芬芳（1997）。自尊對自利歸因的影響：自我槪念內容與結構的交互作用（未
發表之碩士論文）。國立臺灣大學，臺北市。
Abell, S. C., & Richards, M. H. (1996). The relationship between body shape satisfaction and selfesteem: An investigation of gender and class differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, 691–703.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Alley, T. R. (1988). Social and applied aspects of face perception: An introduction. In T. R. Alley(Ed.), Social and applied aspects of perceiving faces (pp.1‒8). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
American Psychological Association. (2015). APA Dictionary of Psychology (second edition). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Andersen, A. E. (1999). Eating disorders in gay males. Psychiatric Annals, 29, 206–
212.
Basow, S. A. (1992). Gender stereotypes and roles (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole.
Bem, S. L. (1983). Gender schema theory and its implications for child development:
Benokraitis, N. V., & Feagin, J. R. (1995). Modern sexism: Blatant, Subtle, and covert discrimination (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Benokraitis, N. V., & Feagin, J. R. (1995). Modern sexism: Blatant, Subtle, and covert discrimination (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Blashill, A. J. (2010). Elements of male body image: Prediction of depression, eating
77
pathology and social sensitivity among gay men. Body Image, 7, 310‒316.
Boroughs, M., & Thompson, J. K. (2002). Exercise and sexual orientation as moderators of body image disturbance and eating disorders in males. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 307–311.
Brand, P. A., Rothblum, E. D., & Solomon, L. J. (1992). A comparison of lesbians, gay men, and heterosexuals on weight and restrained eating. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 253–259.
Brannon R. (1976). The male sex role: Our culture’s blueprint for manhood, and what it’s done for us lately. In D. S. David D & R. Brannon (Eds.), The forty-nine percent majority: The male sex role (pp. 1-45). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Cafri, G. & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Evaluating the convergence of muscle appearance attitude measures. Assessment, 11(3), 224-229.
Cafri, G., Strauss, J., & Thompson, J. K. (2002). Male body image: Satisfaction and its relationship to wellbeing using the somatomorphic matrix. International Journal of Men’s Health, 1, 215–231.
Cafri, G., Thompson, K., Ricciardelli, L., McCabe, M., Smolak, L., & Yesalis, C.
(2005). Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(2), 215-239.
Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. (Eds.) (1990). Body images: Development, deviance, and change. New York: Guilford Press
Cash, T. F., & Smolak, L. (2011). Understanding Body Images: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. In T. F. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.) Body image: a handbook of science, practice, and prevention (second edition) (pp.3-11). New York:
Guilford Press.
Cohane, G. H., & Pope, H. G. (2001). Body image in boys: A review of the literature.
78
International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29(4), 373-379.
Crandall, C. S. (1994). Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and selfinterest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 882–894.
Davids, C. M., Watson, L. B., Nilsson, J. E., & Marszalek, J. M. (2015). Body dissatisfaction among gay men: The roles of sexual objectification, gay community involvement, and psychological sense of community. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(4), 376-385.
Dawson, J. F., & Richter, A. W. (2006). Probing three-way interactions in moderated multiple regression: Development and application of a slope difference test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 917‒926.
DeBlaere, C. & Brewster, M. E. (2017). A Confirmation of the Drive for Muscularity Scale With Sexual Minority Men. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(2). 227–232.
Derogatis, L. (2000). The Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18): Administration, scoring and procedures manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer System.
Doyle, D. M., & Engeln, R. (2014). Body size moderates the association between gay community identification and body image disturbance. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1, 279‒281.
Edwards, S., & Launder, C. (2000). Investigating muscularity concerns in male body image: Development of the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire.
International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28(1), 120-124.
Eisenberg, M. E., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Haines, J., & Wall, M. (2006). Weight-teasing and emotional well-being in adolescents: Longitudinal findings from Project EAT.
Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 675–683.
Engeln-Maddox, R., Miller, S. A., & Doyle, D. M. (2011). Tests of objectification
79
theory in gay, lesbian, and heterosexual community samples: Mixed evidence for proposed pathways. Sex Roles, 65, 518–532.
Feldman, M. B., & Meyer, I. H. (2007a). Eating disorders in diverse lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40, 218–226.
Figueroa, W. S., & Zoccola, P. M. (2015). Individual Differences of Risk and Resiliency in Sexual Minority Health: The Roles of Stigma Consciousness and Psychological Hardiness. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(3), 329–338.
Foster-Gimbel, O. & Engeln, R. (2016). Fat Chance! Experiences and Expectations of Antifat Bias in the Gay Male Community. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(1), 63–70.
Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 115‒134.
Frederick, D. A., Buchanan, G. M., Sadehgi-Azar, L., Peplau, L. A., Haselton, M. G., Berezovskaya, A., & Lipinski, R. E. (2007). Desiring the muscular ideal: Men’s body satisfaction in the United States, Ukraine, and Ghana. Psychology of Men &
Masculinity, 8, 103–117.
Furham, A., & Calnan, A. (1998). Eating disturbance, self-esteem, reasons for exercising and body weight dissatisfaction in adolescent males. European Eating Disorders Review, 6(1), 58-72.
Garner, D. M. (1997). The 1997 body image survey results. Psychology Today, 30 (January/February), 30–44, 75–80, 84.
Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia.
International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15–34.
Green, P. S., & Pritchard, M. E. (2003). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in
80
adult men and women. Social Behavior and Personality, 31(3), 215-222.
Grilo, C. M., Masheb, R. M., Brody, M., Burke-Martindale, C. H., & Rothschild, B. S.
(2005). Binge eating and self-esteem predict body image dissatisfaction among obese men and women seeking bariatric surgery. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 37(4), 347-351.
Grogan, S. (1999). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, woman, and children. New York: Routledge Press.
Gruber, A. J., Pope, H. G., Jr., Borowiecki, J., & Cohane, G. (1999). The development of the somatomorphic matrix: A bi-axial instrument for measuring body image in men and women. In T. S. Olds, J. Dollman, J., & K. I. Norton (Eds.), Kinanthropometry VI. Sydney: International Society for the Advancement of
Kinanthropometry.
Harmatz, M. G., Gronendyke, J., & Thomas, T. (1985). The underweight male: The unrecognized problem group of body image research. Journal of Obesity and Weight Regulation, 4(4), 258-267.
Herzog, D. B., Newman, K. L., & Warshaw, M. (1991). Body image dissatisfaction in homosexual and heterosexual males. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179, 356–359.
Herzog, D. B., Norman, D. K., Gordon, C., & Pepose, M. (1984). Sexual conflict and eating disorders in 27 males. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 989–990.
Hospers, H. J., & Jansen, A. (2005). Why homosexuality is a risk factor for eating disorders in males. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24, 1188–1201.
Hunt, C. J., Gonsalkorale, K., & Nosek, B. A. (2012). Links Between Psychosocial Variables and Body Dissatisfaction in Homosexual Men: Differential Relations with the Drive for Muscularity and the Drive for Thinness. International Journal of Men’s
81
Health, 11(2), 127‒136.
Jacobi, L., & Cash, T. F. (1994). In pursuit of the perfect appearance: Discrepancies among self-ideal percepts of multiple physical attributes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 379–396.
Kaminski, P. L., Chapman, B. P., Haynes, S. D., &, Own, L. (2005). Body image, eating behaviors, and attitudes toward exercise among gay and straight men. Eating Behaviors, 6, 179–187.
Kane, G. D. (2010). Revisiting Gay Men’s Body Image Issues: Exposing the Fault Lines. Review of General Psychology, 14(4), 311–317.
Kimmel, S. B., & Mahalik, J. R. (2005). Body image concerns of gay men: The roles of minority stress and conformity to masculine norms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 1185–1190.
Labre, M. P. (2005). The male body ideal: Perspectives of readers and non-readers of fitness magazines. Journal of Men's Health & Gender, 2(2), 223-229.
Leit, R. A., Pope, H. G., Jr., & Gray, J. J. (2001). Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of Playgirl centerfolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 90–93.
Levesque, M. J., & Vichesky, D. R. (2006). Raising the bar on the body beautiful: An analysis of the body image concerns of homosexual men. Body Image, 3, 45–55.
Martins, Y., Tiggemann, M., & Churchett, L. (2008). The Shape of Things to Come:
Gay Men’s Satisfaction With Specific Body Parts. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(4), 248–256.
McBride, L. E. (1986). Teaching about Body Image: A Technique for Improving Body Satisfaction. Journal of School Health, 56(2), 76–77.
McCreary, D. R. (2007). The Drive for Muscularity Scale: Description, Psychometrics,
82
and Research Findings. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal:
Psychological, social, and medical perspectives (pp. 87-106). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
McCreary, D. R., & Sasse, D. K. (2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls. Journal of American College Health, 48, 297–304.
Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38–56.
Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., & Sager, C. (2004). Does body satisfaction differ between gay men and lesbian women and heterosexual men and women? A meta- analytic review. Body Image, 1, 127–138.
Morrison, T. G., & McCutcheon J. M. (2011). Gay and Lesbian Body Images. In T. F.
Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.) Body image: a handbook of science, practice, and prevention (second edition) (pp.214-220). New York: Guilford Press.
Morrison, T. G., Morrison, M. A., Hopkins, C., & Rowan, E. T. (2004). Muscle mania:
Development of a new scale examining the drive for muscularity in Canadian males.
Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5(1), 30-39.
Moskowitz, D. A., & Hart, T. A. (2011). The Influence of Physical Body Traits and Masculinity on Anal Sex Roles in Gay and Bisexual Men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 835–841.
Neumark-Sztainer, D. R., Wall, M. M., Haines, J. I., Story, M. T., Sherwood, N. E., &
van den Berg, P. A. (2007). Shared risk and protective factors for overweight and disordered eating in adolescents. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 359–
369.
Olivardia, R., Pope, H. G., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2004). Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and selfesteem, depression, and eating
83
disorder symptoms. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5, 112–120.
Pleck, J. H. (1981). The myth of masculinity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Pleck, J. H. (1995). The gender role strain paradigm: An update. In R. F. Levant & W.
S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 11–32). New York: Basic Books.
Pope, H. G., Jr., Phillips, K. A., & Olivardia, R. (2000). The Adonis Complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Pope, H. G., Olivardia, R., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2001). The growing commercial value of the male body: A longitudinal survey of advertising in women’s magazines. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 70, 189–192.
Pope, H. G., Olivardia, R., Gruber, A., & Borowiecki, J. (1999). Evolving ideals of male body image as seen through action toys. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 65–72.
Pruzinsky, T., & Cash, T. F. (2002). Understanding body images: Historical and contemporary perspectives. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 3–12), New York: Guilford
Press.
Rodin, J., Silberstein, L. R., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1985). Women and weight: A normative discontent. In R. Sonderegger (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 267-307). Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press.
Rohlinger, D. A. (2002). Eroticizing men: Cultural influences on advertising and male objectification. Sex Roles, 46, 61–74.
Salusso-Deonier, C. J., Markee, N. L., & Pedersen, E. L. (1993). Gender differences in the evaluation of physical attractiveness ideals for male and female body builds.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76, 1155–1167.
Schilder, P. (1970). The image and appearance of the human body: Studies in the
84
constructive energies of psyche. New York: International University Press.
Schneider, J. A.,&Agras, W. S. (1987). Bulimia in males: A matched comparison with females. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6, 235–242.
Shontz, F. C. (1990). Body image and physical disability. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 149–169). New York:
Guilford Press.
Siever, M. D. (1994). Sexual orientation and gender as factors in socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 252–260.
Silberstein, L. R., Mishkind, M. E., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Timko, C., & Rodin, J.
(1989). Men and their bodies: A comparison of homosexual and heterosexual men.
(1989). Men and their bodies: A comparison of homosexual and heterosexual men.