cre.,96 年度平均為 0.020 μmol/mol cre.,97 年度平均為 0.033 μmol/mol cre.;尿中 2-NP 濃度在 95 年度平均為 2.69 μmol/mol cre.,96 年度平均為 3.22 μmol/mol cre.,97 年度平均為 3.75 μmol/mol cre.,三年間暴露組 居民尿中 2-NP 濃度似乎有遞增之趨勢。在 97 年度暴露組居民尿中 1-OHP 及 μmol/mol cre.,暴露組為 1.46 μmol/mol cre.。
三、 民眾尿中 2-NP 濃度對人體之呼吸道症狀會有不良影響,尿中 2-NP 濃度較高
污染排放源並評估一般民眾個人暴露此污染物的濃度,以作為未來環保相關管 制該地區污染物排放量之參考。
四、 家中萘丸會揮發出有機物質,例如:naphthalene,可能影響居民尿中 2-NP 濃度,在未來研究中還需考慮萘丸可能造成的影響。
參考文獻 參考文獻 參考文獻 參考文獻
1. 郭憲文. 中部科學園區易感世代族群境暴露與健康狀況背景資料之建立. 行 政院國家科學委員會研究計畫書 NSC94-EPA-Z-039-002- 2005.
2. 林淵淙. 多環芳 香烴 化合物類(PAHs)對人 體之影響. 行政 院環 境保護署 1999.
3. Chuang CY, Chang CC. Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene level relative to vehicle exhaust exposure mediated by metabolic enzyme polymorphisms. J Occup Health 2007;49:140-51.
8. VanRooij JG, Bodelier-Bade MM, Jongeneelen FJ. Estimation of individual dermal and respiratory uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 12 coke oven workers. Br J Ind Med 1993;50:623-32.
9. VanRooij JG, De Roos JH, Bodelier-Bade MM, et al. Absorption of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons through human skin: differences between anatomical sites and individuals. J Toxicol Environ Health 1993;38:355-68.
10. Vanrooij JG, Bodelier-Bade MM, De Looff AJ, et al. Dermal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons among primary aluminium workers. Med Lav 1992;83:519-29.
11. doVale Bosso RM, Amorim LM, Andrade SJ, et al. Effects of genetic polymorphisms CYP1A1, GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1 on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene levels in sugarcane workers. Sci Total Environ 2006;370:382-90.
12. Chen B, Hu Y, Jin T, et al. The influence of metabolic gene polymorphisms on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene concentrations in Chinese coke oven workers.
Sci Total Environ 2007;381:38-46.
13. Grover PL. Pathways involved in the metabolism and activation of polycyclic hydrocarbons. Xenobiotica 1986;16:915-31.
14. Seidegard J, Pero RW, Markowitz MM, et al. Isoenzyme(s) of glutathione transferase (class Mu) as a marker for the susceptibility to lung cancer:
a follow up study. Carcinogenesis 1990;11:33-6.
15. Pemble S, Schroeder KR, Spencer SR, et al. Human glutathione
S-transferase theta (GSTT1): cDNA cloning and the characterization of a genetic polymorphism. Biochem J 1994;300:271-6.
16. Mohr LC, Rodgers JK, Silvestri GA. Glutathione S-transferase M1 aromatic hydrocarbons. Br J Ind Med 1990;47:454-61.
19. Boogaard PJ, van Sittert NJ. Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in petrochemical industries by measurement of urinary 1-hydroxypyrene. Occup Environ Med 1994;51:250-8.
20. Buckley TJ, Lioy PJ. An examination of the time course from human dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to urinary elimination of 1-hydroxypyrene. Br J Ind Med 1992;49:113-24.
21. Brzeznicki S, Jakubowski M, Czerski B. Elimination of 1-hydroxypyrene after human volunteer exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1997;70:257-60.
22. Preuss R, Rossbach B, Wilhelm M, et al. External and internal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) among workers in the production of fire-proof materials - proposal of a biological monitoring guidance value. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2006;209:575-80.
23. Virpi Väänänen MHm, Helena K, Kimmo P, et al. Air concentrations and urinary metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons among paving and remixing workers. J Environ Monit 2003;5:739-46.
24. Cocco P, Moore PS, Ennas MG, et al. Effect of urban traffic, individual habits, and genetic polymorphisms on background urinary 1-hydroxypyrene excretion. Ann Epidemiol 2007;17:1-8.
25. Kawamoto T, Yang M, Kim YD, et al. Effects of lifestyle on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene concentration. J Occup Health 2007;49:183-9.
26. Van Rooij JG, Veeger MM, Bodelier-Bade MM, et al. Smoking and dietary intake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as sources of interindividual variability in the baseline excretion of 1-hydroxypyrene in urine. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1994;66:55-65.
27. Sherson D, Sigsgaard T, Overgaard E, et al. Interaction of smoking, uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and cytochrome P450IA2 activity among foundry workers. Br J Ind Med 1992;49:197-202.
28. Levin JO, Rhen M, Sikstrom E. Occupational PAH exposure: urinary
1-hydroxypyrene levels of coke oven workers, aluminium smelter pot-room workers, road pavers, and occupationally non-exposed persons in Sweden. Sci Total Environ 1995;163:169-77.
29. Jongeneelen FJ, Anzion RB, Scheepers PT, et al. 1-Hydroxypyrene in urine as a biological indicator of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in several work environments. Ann Occup Hyg 1988;32:35-43.
30. ZhaoZH, Wyqad HT. Experiments on the effects of several factors on the 1-hydroxypyrene level in human urine as an indicator of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Sci Total Environ 1992;113:197-207.
31. Tjoe NY, Edhhk FJ. The relationship between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in air and in urine of workers in a Söderberg potroom. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1993;54:277-84.
32. Unwin J, Cocker J, Scobbie E, et al. An assessment of occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the UK. Ann Occup Hyg 2006;50:395-403.
33. Kim H, Kang JW, Ku SY, et al. Effect of 'PC Game Room' use and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure on plasma testosterone concentrations in young male Koreans. Hum Reprod 2005;20:598-603.
34. Kato M, Loomis D, Brooks LM, et al. Urinary biomarkers in charcoal workers exposed to wood smoke in Bahia State, Brazil. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004;13:1005-12.
35. Kim MK, Oh S, Lee JH, et al. Evaluation of biological monitoring markers using genomic and proteomic analysis for automobile emission inspectors and waste incinerating workers exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or 2,3,7,8,-tetracholrodedibenzo-p-dioxins. Exp Mol Med 2004;36:396-410.
36. Merlo F, Andreassen A, Weston A, et al. Urinary excretion of 1-hydroxypyrene as a marker for exposure to urban air levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1998;7:147-55.
37. Wu MT, Huang SL, Ho CK, et al. Cytochrome P450 1A1 MspI polymorphism and urinary 1-hydroxypyrene concentrations in coke-oven workers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1998;7:823-9.
38. Hong MN, Hyun SL, Jumg KC, et al. Effect of occupation, lifestyle and genetic polymorphisms of CYP1A1, CYP2E1, GSTM1 and GSTT1 on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene and 2-naphthol concentrations. Carcinogenesis 2001;22:787-93.
39. Pan G, Hanaoka T, Yamano Y, et al. A study of multiple biomarkers in coke oven workers-a cross-sectional study in China. Carcinogenesis 1998;19:1963-8.
40. Lee CY, Lee JY, Kang JW, et al. Effects of genetic polymorphisms of CYP1A1, CYP2E1, GSTM1, and GSTT1 on the urinary levels of 1-hydroxypyrene and 2-naphthol in aircraft maintenance workers. Toxicol Lett 2001;123:115-24.
41. Alexandrie AK, Warholm M, Carstensen U, et al. CYP1A1 and GSTM1
polymorphisms affect urinary 1-hydroxypyrene levels after PAH exposure.
Carcinogenesis 2000;21:669-76.
42. Nerurkar PV, Okinaka L, Aoki C, et al. CYP1A1, GSTM1, and GSTP1 genetic polymorphisms and urinary 1-hydroxypyrene excretion in non-occupationally exposed individuals. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000;9:1119-22.
43. Hoffmann D, Hoffmann I, El-Bayoumy K. The less harmful cigarette: a controversial issue. a tribute to Ernst L. Wynder. Chem Res Toxicol 2001;14:767-90.
44. Schmeltz I, Tosk J, Hoffmann D. Formation and determination of naphthalenes in cigarette smoke. Anal Chem 1976;48:645-50.
45. Coons S, Goyer M. An exposure and risk assessment for benzo(a)pyrene and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Vol II. Naphthalene. Final draft report. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Washington, DC 1982.
46. Chichester CH, Buckpitt AR, Chang A, et al. Metabolism and cytotoxicity of naphthalene and its metabolites in isolated murine Clara cells. Mol Pharmacol 1994;45:664-72.
47. Shultz MA, Choudary PV, Buckpitt AR. Role of murine cytochrome P-450 2F2 in metabolic activation of naphthalene and metabolism of other xenobiotics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999;290:281-8.
48. Horning MG, Stillwell WG, Griffin GW, et al. Epoxide intermediates in the metabolism of naphthalene by the rat. Drug Metab Dispos 1980;8:404-14.
49. Kanekal S, Plopper C, Morin D, et al. Metabolic activation and bronchiolar Clara cell necrosis from naphthalene in the isolated perfused mouse lung. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990;252:428-37.
50. Kanekal S, Plopper C, Morin D, et al. Metabolism and cytotoxicity of naphthalene oxide in the isolated perfused mouse lung. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1991;256:391-401.
51. Serdar B, Waidyanatha S, Zheng Y, et al. Simultaneous determination of urinary 1- and 2-naphthols, 3- and 9-phenanthrols, and 1-pyrenol in coke oven workers.
Biomarkers 2003;8:93-109.
52. Kuusimaki L, Peltonen Y, Mutanen P, et al. Urinary hydroxy-metabolites of naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene as markers of exposure to diesel exhaust. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2004;77:23-30.
53. Preuss R, Koch HM, Wilhelm M, et al. Pilot study on the naphthalene exposure of German adults and children by means of urinary 1- and 2-naphthol levels. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2004;207:441-5.
54. Hill RH, Head SL, Baker S, et al. Pesticide residues in urine of adults living in the United States: reference range concentrations. Environ Res 1995;71:99-108.
55. Shealy DB, Barr JR, Ashley DL, et al. Correlation of environmental carbaryl measurements with serum and urinary 1-naphthol measurements in a farmer applicator and his family. Environ Health Perspect 1997;105:510-3.
56. Whitemore RW, Immerman FW, Camann DE, et al. Non-occupational exposures to pesticides for residents of two U.S. cities. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1994;26:47-59.
57. Waidyanatha S, Zheng Y, Serdar B, et al. Albumin adducts of naphthalene metabolites as biomarkers of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004;13:117-24.
58. Serdar B, Egeghy PP, Waidyanatha S, et al. Urinary biomarkers of exposure to jet fuel (JP-8). Environ Health Perspect 2003;111:1760-4.
59. Bieniek G. The presence of 1-naphthol in the urine of industrial workers exposed to naphthalene. Occup Environ Med 1994;51:357-9.
60. Heikkila P, Luotamo M, Pyy L, et al. Urinary 1-naphthol and 1-pyrenol as indicators of exposure to coal tar products. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1995;67:211-7.
61. Yang M, Koga M, Katoh T, et al. A study for the proper application of urinary naphthols, new biomarkers for airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1999;36:99-108.
62. Bakke J, Struble C, Gustafsson JA, et al. Catabolism of premercapturic acid pathway metabolites of naphthalene to naphthols and methylthio-containing metabolites in rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1985;82:668-71.
63. Turkall RM, Skowronski GA, Kadry AM, et al. A comparative study of the kinetics and bioavailability of pure and soil-adsorbed naphthalene in dermally exposed male rats. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1994;26:504-9.
64. Wilhelm M, Hardt J, Schulz C, et al. New reference value and the background exposure for the PAH metabolites 1-hydroxypyrene and 1- and 2-naphthol in urine of the general population in Germany: Basis for validation of human biomonitoring data in environmental medicine. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2008;211:447-53.
65. Bieniek G. Urinary naphthols as an indicator of exposure to naphthalene. Scand J Work Environ Health 1997;23:414-20.
66. Kim H, Cho SH, Kang JW, et al. Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene and 2-naphthol concentrations in male Koreans. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2001;74:59-62.
67. Nan HM, Kim H, Lim HS, et al. Effects of occupation, lifestyle and genetic polymorphisms of CYP1A1, CYP2E1, GSTM1 and GSTT1 on urinary 1-hydroxypyrene and 2-naphthol concentrations. Carcinogenesis 2001;22:787-93.
68. Pavanello S, Clonfero E. Biological indicators of genotoxic risk and metabolic polymorphisms. Mutat Res 2000;463:285-308.
69. Cook JW, Hieger I. The isolation of a cancer-producing hydrocarbon from coal tar.
Parts I, II, and III. J Chem Soc 1933:395-405.
70. Bertrand JP, Patris A, Mur JM,et al. Mortality due to respiratory cancers in the coke oven plants of the Lorraine coalmining industry. Br J Ind Med 1987;44:559-65.
71. Morris KCC. Comparative Distribution of Eight Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Airborne Particulates Collected by Conventional High-Volume Sampling and by Size Fractionation. Environ Sci Technol 1980;14:838-43.
72. Grimmer G, Schreider D. Changes in PAH profiles in different areas of a city during the year. In polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons; chemistry and biological effect. Battelle press, Columbus 1983:107-25.
73. 游育欣. 車用汽油中替代含氧添加劑種類及含量對機車引擎排放多環芳香烴 化合物之影響. 嘉南藥理科技大學 環境工程與科學研究所 碩士論文 2005.
74. 廖永生. 人類肺癌組織及細胞株中多環芳香烴類受器 Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor, Ah-Receptor Nuclear Translocator 和 Cytochrome P4501A1 之表 現情形. 中山醫學院 毒理學研究所 碩士論文 1999.
75. Siwinska E, Mielzynska D, Smolik E, et al. Evaluation of intra- and interindividual variation of urinary 1-hydroxypyrene, a biomarker of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Sci Total Environ 1998;217:175-83.
76. Mastrangelo G, Fadda E, Marzia V. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and cancer in man. Environ Health Perspect 1996;104:1166-70.
77. Shimizu Y, Nakatsuru Y, Ichinose M, et al. Benzo[a]pyrene carcinogenicity is lost in mice lacking the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2000;97:779-82.
78. 張冠甫. 大氣中硝酸氣體採樣誤差及多環芳香族化合物(PAHs)健康風險評估 之研究. 國立中興大學 環境工程學研究所 碩士論文 2003.
79. Fang GC, Chen MH, Ho TT, et al. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons study in Taichung, Taiwan, during 2002-2003. Atmos Environ 2004;38:3385-91.
80. Fang GC, Chang KF, Lu C, et al. Toxic equivalency factors study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Taichung City, Taiwan. Toxicol Ind Health 2002;18:279-88. performance liquid chromatography. Med Biol 1993;127:201-205.
84. Kim H, Kim YD, Lee H, et al. Assay of 2-naphthol in human urine by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl 1999;734:211-7.
85. 楊昆霖. 台灣南部都會區多環芳香烴化合物空間分佈特徵. 嘉南藥理科技大
學 環境工程與科學研究所 碩士論文 2005.
86. 李建坤. 拜香及蚊香燃燒產生之多環芳香烴化合物. 國立台灣大學公共衛生 研究所 碩士論文 1996.
87. Huang W, Caudill SP, Grainger J, et al. Levels of 1-hydroxypyrene and other monohydroxy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in children: a study based on U.S.
reference range values. Toxicol Lett 2006;163:10-9.
88. Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chenmicals.
Department of Health and Human Services centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2005.
89. 劉淑惠. 懷孕婦女暴露二手菸之代謝物與其新生兒結果之相關性研究. 中國 醫藥大學 環境醫學研究所 碩士論文 2003.
90. 李經民、李國揚、傅玉華、賀斌、郭雅玲. 南台灣 K 縣大氣中 PAHs 危害物質 暴露之健康風險評估初探. 國立雲林科技大學環境與安全衛生工程系學刊 第 六期 2005.
91. Annesi MI, Oryszczyn MP, Raherison C, et al. Increased prevalence of asthma and allied diseases among active adolescent tobacco smokers after controlling for passive smoking exposure. A cause for concern? Clin Exp Allergy 2004;34:1017-23.
92. Abramson M, Matheson M, Wharton C, et al. Prevalence of respiratory symptoms related to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma among middle aged and older adults. Respirology 2002;7:325-31.
93. Plaschke PP, Janson C, Norrman E, et al. Onset and remission of allergic rhinitis and asthma and the relationship with atopic sensitization and smoking. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:920-4.
94. Thomson NC, Chaudhuri R, Livingston E. Asthma and cigarette smoking. Eur Respir J 2004;24:822-33.
95. Frank P, Morris J, Hazell M, et al. Smoking, respiratory symptoms and likely asthma in young people: evidence from postal questionnaire surveys in the Wythenshawe Community Asthma Project (WYCAP). BMC Pulm Med 2006;6:10.
表一
表二
表