As immigration takes center stage among social and political issues faced by
governments across the globe, it is imperative for scholars and policy makers alike to study how preferences towards immigrants and immigration are shaped. However, research on immigration attitudes has been focused on traditional settler societies in Northern America, Australia and New Zealand, as well as Western Europe. Although at present, Asia has the largest inward and outward migration flows among world regions, not much mainstream attention has been given to it. Specifically, East Asian countries suffer from the demographic problems of low fertility rates, an aging population, and a dwindling labor force, and they are slowly turning to immigration as a slow but future-looking solution – but not without resistance from their publics.
Previous studies have found that cultural threats are indeed more salient in East Asia than economic threats. Thus, in this thesis, we attempted to bridge the gap in literature by focusing on the ideological determinants of support for immigration in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Using data from the fourth wave of the Asian Barometer Survey, we employ binary logistic regression and ordered logistic regression to find the relationship between the said outcome variable and key explanatory variables: defensive nationalism, social traditionalism, and social trust.
Through graphical and empirical analyses, we find that defensive nationalism and social traditionalism have a strong, negative relationship with support for immigration, while social trust has a weak, positive relationship with support for immigration. The results confirm the hypotheses in this study, that as people become more nationalistic and conventional, they will support immigration less; and as they trust other people more, they will also support immigration more. These findings might be important starting points for policymakers and immigration advocates in East Asia, as they continue to study which solutions might be more effective in reducing xenophobia, prejudice and racial discrimination in their societies.
Among the three countries included in this study, the explanatory variables seem to have the strongest relationship with support for immigration among Japanese respondents. This is a crucial point in light of the recent developments in the immigration context of Japan, where for the first time, a law inviting and allowing low-skilled foreign laborers to legally work in the country has been passed just last April 2019. Despite decades of calling for this kind of
‧
legislation, many still criticized the move by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe’s government due to its hasty nature and not being comprehensive enough to address issues of social inclusion.
In Korea, results suggest that social traditionalism has the strongest relationship with support for immigration between explanatory variables. It would be interesting to probe why defensive nationalism and social trust is not significant in Korea, and how it might be connected with the unceasing rift between the north and the south. Another question related to this, is why is social trust low in Korea in general?
Among countries, the hypotheses seem to fit Taiwan the least, although defensive nationalism has weak significance. It is highly possible that this has something to do with its unstable and possibly volatile relationship with China, whose citizens have been the subject of discrimination as neither ‘Taiwanese’ nor ‘foreigners’. Thus, instead of adherence to tradition or lack of trust in others, it might be their concern for defending their way of life that drives their reactions to immigrants and immigration.
Research Limitations. Limitations of this study include the use of cross-sectional data, which in this case, is inevitable when dealing with the ABS4 because immigration as an issue was only recently introduced among survey items. Previous research had advocated for the use of panel data to account for possible trends over time (eg. Ceobanu & Escandell, 2010;
Hainmueller & Hopkins, 2014). Another limitation related to the cause of the first is the
aggregation of immigrants into one category, instead of dividing it into two based on skill (high and low) or racial/regional groupings, something that Ford (2011) labels as a “serious
methodological shortcoming” (p. 1017).
Recommendations. Thus, it is highly recommended that future studies be able to circumvent these limitations by using additional international datasets and surveys (eg. World Values Survey), as well as national surveys from East Asian countries (eg. Japanese General Social Survey, Korean General Social Survey, Taiwan Social Change Survey, etc.) to see patterns over time. We also recommend testing the explanatory variables used in this thesis for all Asian countries to see how the results compare and contrast across different regions.
Compared to experimental studies or randomized controlled trials, causal inference is difficult to arrive at with most survey and observational data. Consequently, this study does not propose to claim causality, but merely point out relationships between political attitudes, social trust and support for immigration.
‧
Agresti, A. (2018). Statistical methods for the social sciences (5th ed.). London: Pearson.
Alesina, A. & La Ferrara, E. (2000). Participation in heterogeneous communities. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115 (3), 847-904.
Altemeyer, R.A. (1981). Right-Wing Authoritarianism. Winnipeg, Canada: University of Manitoba.
Agence-France Presse (AFP). (2014, April 10). South Korea imposes new restrictions on marriages to foreigners. The Straits Times. Retrieved from
https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/south-korea-imposes-new-restrictions-on-marriages-to-foreigners
Barber, C., Fennelly, K., & Torney-Purta, J. (2013). Nationalism and support for immigrants’
rights among adolescents in 25 countries. Applied Development Science, 17 (2), 60-75.
doi: 10.1080/10888691.2013.774870
Barnes, K. (2015). National identity and attitudes toward immigrants: The role of social comparison and perceptions of competition (unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Western Ontario, Canada.
Bélanger, D. (2010). Marriages with foreign women in East Asia: bride trafficking or voluntary migration. Population and Societies, 469, 1-4.
Bélanger, D., Lee, H.K., Wang, H.Z. (2010). Ethnic diversity and statistics in East Asia: ‘Foreign brides’ surveys in Taiwan and South Korea. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33 (6), 1108-1130.doi: 10.1080/01419870903427507
Berinsky, A.J. (2012). Introduction. In A. Berinsky (Ed.), New directions in public opinion, 1-16.
New York: Routledge.
Bierbrauer, G., & Klinger, E.W. (2002). Political ideology, perceived threat, and justice towards immigrants. Social Justice Research, 15 (1), 41-52.
Bisheh, J.Z. (2017). A comparative analysis of divergent immigrant policies for foreign elderly care workers in Japan and South Korea (unpublished Master’s Thesis). The University of Texas at Austin, Texas.
Braithwaite, V. (1982). The structure of social values: Validation of Rokeach’s two-value model.
British Journal of Social Psychology, 21, 203-211.
‧
Brooks, C., Manza, J., & Cohen, E. (2016). Political ideology and immigrant acceptance. Socius:
Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 2, 1-12. doi: 10.1177/2378023116668881 Campbell, A.L. (2012). Public opinion and public policy. In A.J. Berinsky (Ed)., New directions
in public opinion, 271-291. New York: Routledge.
Ceobanu, A.M., & Escandell, X. (2010). Comparative analyses of public attitudes toward immigrants and immigration using multinational survey data: A review of theories and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 309-328. doi:
10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102651
Chandler, C.R., & Tsai, Y.M. (2001). Social factors influencing immigration attitudes: an analysis of data from the General Social Survey. The Social Science Journal, 38, 177-188.
Chang, A.C.H., & Welsh, B. (2016). A globalization backlash? Public views of immigration in East Asia, Working Paper Series: No.166. Asian Barometer Survey Conference, August 8-11, 2016. Taiwan: Asian Barometer.
Chen, Y.H., & Yi, C.C. (2013). The perception of social distance in a multi-ethnic society: The case of Taiwan. In E. Fong, L.H.N. Chiang, and N. Denton (Eds.), Immigrant adaptation in multi-ethnic societies: Canada, Taiwan, and the United States (pp. 170-198). New York: Routledge.
Chung, E.A. (2010). Immigration and Citizenship in Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Chung, E.A. (2014). Japan and South Korea. In J.F. Hollifield, P.L. Martin, & P.M. Orrenius (Eds.), Controlling immigration: A global perspective (3rd ed., pp. 399-421). Palo Alto:
Stanford University Press.
Cohrs, J.C., & Stelzl, M. (2010). How ideological attitudes predict host society
members’attitudes towards immigrants: Exploring cross-national differences. Journal of Social Issues, 66 (4), 673-694. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2010.01670.x
Converse, P. (1975). The nature of belief systems in mass publics. In D. Adapter (Ed.), Ideology and discontent, 206-261. New York: The Free Press.
Costa, D. L., & Kahn, M. E. (2003). Civic engagement and community heterogeneity: An economist’s perspective. Perspectives on Politics, 1 (1), 103-11.
Delhey, J., & Newton, K. (2005). Predicting cross-national levels of social trust: Global pattern
‧
or nordic exceptionalism?. European Sociological Review, 21 (4), 311-27.
Duckitt, J., Bizumic, B., Krauss, S.W., & Heled, E. (2010). A tripartite approach to right-wing authoritarianism: The Authoritarianism-Conservatism-Traditionalism Model. Political Psychology, 31 (5), 685-715. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00781.x
Federico, C.M. (2012). Ideology and public opinion. In A. Berinsky (Ed.), New directions in public opinion, 79-100. New York: Routledge.
Feldman, S. (2003). Values, ideology, and the structure of political attitudes. In D. O. Sears, L.
Huddy, & R. Jervis (Eds.), Oxford handbook of political psychology (pp. 477-508). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
Feldman, S., & Huddy, L. (2014). Not so simple: The multidimensional nature of diverse origins of political ideology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 37 (3), 312-313. doi:
10.1017/S0140525X13002562.
Fisher, Stephen (2009), “Right (-wing),” in I. McLean & A. McMillan (Eds.), Oxford concise dictionary of politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ford, R. (2011). Acceptable and unacceptable immigrants: How opposition to immigration in Britain is affected by migrants’ region of origin. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 37 (7), 1017-1037. doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2011.572423
Gaynor, B. (2016). Changing from within: Immigration and Japan. CALL: Irish Journal for Culture, Arts, Literature and Language, 1 (1), 1-18. doi: doi:10.21427/D7J01J
Giovanni, F., Margalit, Y., Hiroyuki, N. (2016). Countering public opinion to immigration: the impact of information campaigns, IZA DP No. 10420. Bonn, Germany: IZA Institute of Labor Economics.
Gottdiener, M. & Budd, L. (2005). Key concepts in urban studies. London: SAGE Publications.
Gundelach, B., & Manatschal, A. (2016). Ethnic diversity, social trust, and the moderating role of subnational integration policy. Political Studies, 65 (2), 413-431.
Green, D., & Kadoya, Yoshihiko. (2013). English as a gateway? Immigration and public opinion in Japan. ISER Discussion Paper No. 883. Retrieved from SSRN:
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2320269
Green, D., & Kadoya, Yoshihiko. (2015). Contact and threat: Factors affecting views on increasing immigration in Japan. Politics and Policy, 43 (1). doi: 10.1111/polp.12109
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a
tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Green, E.G.T., Sarrasin, O., Fasel, N., & Staerklé, C. (2011). Nationalism and patriotism as predictors of immigration attitudes in Switzerland: A municipality-level analysis. Swiss Political Science Review, 17 (4), 369-393. doi: 10.1111/j.1662-6370.2011.02030.x Ha, S.E., & Jang, S. (2015). Immigration, threat perception, and national identity: Evidence from
South Korea. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 44, 53-62. doi:
10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.12.001
Hainmueller, J., & Hopkins, D.J. (2014). Public attitudes toward immigration. Annual Review of Political Science, 17, 225-249. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-102512-194818
Harteveld, E., Kokkonen, A., & Dahlberg, S. (2017). Adapting to party lines: The effect of party affiliation on attitudes to immigration. West European Politics, 40 (6), 1177-1197. doi:
10.1080/01402382.2017.1328889
Hawley, G. (2011). Political threat and immigration: Party identification, demographic context, and immigration policy preference. Social Science Quarterly, 92 (2), 404-422. doi:
10.1111/j.1540-6237.2011.00775.x
Heinrich, H.A. (2018). Causal relationship or not? Nationalism, patriotism, and anti-immigration attitudes in Germany. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity. doi: 10.1177/2332649218788583 Herreros, F., & Criado, H. (2009). Social trust, social capital and perceptions of immigration.
Political Studies, 57, 337-355. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9248.2008.00738.x
Hetherington, M. (2012), Partisanship and polarization. In A. Berinsky (Ed.), New directions in public opinion, 101-118. New York: Routledge.
Hiroyuki, N. (2017). Attitudes toward immigration in an ageing society: Evidence from Japan, RIETI Discussion Paper Series 17-E-095. Tokyo, Japan: Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry.
Hlavac, M. (2011). Political ideology and individual-level attitudes towards immigration in the European Union: Evidence from the European Values Study, 2008/2009 (unpublished Master’s Thesis). Georgetown University, Washington D.C.
Hsia, H.C. (2007). Imaged and imagined threat to the nation: The media construction of the
‘foreign brides’ phenomenon’ as social problems in Taiwan. Inter-cultural Asia Studies, 8, 55-85. doi: 10.1080/14649370601119006
‧
Huddy, L., & Khatib, N. (2007). American patriotism, national identity, and political
involvement. American Journal of Political Science, 51 (1), 63-77. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00237.x
Iida, T., Matsubayashi, T., & Ueda, Michiko. (2012). Immigration and support for conservative parties in Japan. 2012XXII World Congress of Political Science, Madrid, Spain.
Inglehart, R. (1999). Trust, well-being and democracy. In M.E. Warren (Ed.), Democracy and trust (pp. 88-120). Cambridge University Press.
Jewell, R.T., Melgar, N., Molina, D.J., Rossi, M. (2009). Attitudes toward immigrants: A cross-country perspective, No. 03/09. Uruguay: Unibersidad de la Républica.
Jeong, H.O. (2013). Do national feelings influence public attitudes toward immigration? Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 39 (9), 1461-1477. doi:
10.1080/1369183X.2013.815428
Kage, R., Rosenbluth, F.M., & Tanaka, S. (2018). Varieties of public attitudes towards immigration: Evidence from survey experiments in Japan. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=3229608
Kaltenthaler, K., & Miller, W.J. (2013). Social psychology and public support for trade liberalization. International Studies Quarterly, 57 (4), 784-790.
Kartikasari, N. (2013). Effects of labor immigration policies on Indonesian migrant workers in Japan and South Korea (unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, Tokyo.
Kazemipur, A. (2006). A Canadian exceptionalism? Trust and diversity in Canadian cities.
Journal of International Migration and Integration, 7 (2), 219-240.
Kesler, C., & Bloemraad, I. (2010). Does immigration erode social capital? The conditional effects of immigration-generated diversity on trust, membership, and participation across 19 countries, 1981-2000. Diversity and Democratic Politics, 43 (2), 319-347.
Key, V.O. (1961). Public Opinion and American Democracy. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Kiehne, E., & Ayon, C. (2016). Friend or foes: The impact of political ideology and immigrant friends on anti-immigrant sentiment. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 43 (3), 135-154.
Kim, A.E. (2009). Demography, migration, and multiculturalism in South Korea. The Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, 7 (6).
‧
Kim, A.E. (2009). Global migration and South Korea: foreign workers, foreign brides, and the making of a multicultural society. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32 (1), 70-92. doi:
10.1080/01419870802044197
Kim, B.J., & Torres-Gil, F. (2008). Aging and immigration: The case of South Korea (with a look at Italy and Japan). American Society on Ageing, 4, 80-86.
Kimura, K. (2016). Why do immigration policies differ between Japan and Korea. Sociology Study, 6 (8), 490-507. doi: 10.17265/2159‐5526/2016.08.002
Kinder, D.R. (1998). Opinion and action in the realm of politics. In D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, & g.
Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (pp. 778-867). New York: Oxford University Press.
Knack, S., & Keefer, P. (1997). Does social capital have an economic payoff? A cross-country investigation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112 (4), 1251-88.
Kobayashi, T., Collet, Christian, Iyengar, S., & Hahn, K. (2015). Who deserves citizenship? An experimental study of Japanese workers toward immigrant workers. Social Science Japan Journal, 18 (1), 3-22. doi: 10.1093/ssjj/jyu035
Ku, S.C.Y., & Kironska, K. (2016). Migration in East and Southeast Asia. New Jersey: World Scientific.
Lahav, G., & Courtemanche, M. (2011). The ideological effects of framing threat on
immigration and civil liberties. Political Behavior, 34 (3), 1-29. doi: 10.1007/s11109-011-9171-z
Latcheva, R. (2010). Cognitive interviewing and factor-analytic techniques: A mixed method approach to validity of survey items measuring national identity. Quality and Quantity, 45 (6), 1175-1199. doi: 10.1007/s11135-009-9285-0
Lee, B. (2010). Comparing immigration policies in Japan and Korea: A historical-institutionalist approach (unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey.
Lee, K. (2017). Alienating ethnic kin: Assessing immigration integration policies for the Brazilian Nikkeijin and Jeosonjok marriage migrants in Korea. Cornell International Affairs Review, 10, 63-104.
Lee, K.K. (1998). Huddled masses, muddled laws: Why contemporary immigration policy fails to reflect public opinion. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
‧
Lee, Y.J, Seol, D.H., & Cho, S.N. (2006). International marriages in South Korea: The significance of nationality and ethnicity. Journal of Population Research, 23 (2).
Lim, T. (2009). Who is Korean? Migration, immigration, and the challenge of multiculturalism in homogenous societies. The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, 7 (30).
Lin, Y.C. (2016). International marriage matchmaking agencies and women’s premarital preparation in a Taiwanese context. In S.C.Y. Ku, & K. Kironska (Eds.), Migration in East and Southeast Asia (pp. 265-279). New Jersey: World Scientific.
Lloyd, C., & Metzer, J. (2013). Settler colonization and societies in world history: Patterns and concepts. In C. LLloyd, J. Metzer, & R. Sutch, Settler economies in world history, 1-34.
Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
Luedtke, A. (2005). European integration, public opinion and immigration policy. European Union Politics, 6 (1), 83-112.
Medeiros, M.A., Figueiredo, D., Batista, M., Campos, C.R., Rosendo, S.V., & Coêlho, N.
(2018). Ideology and immigration patterns in European Union (1988-2015). 25th World Congress of Political Science, Brisbane, Australia, July 21-25, 2018.
Mendoza, J.J. (2015). Latino/a immigration: A refutation of the social trust argument. In H.
Bauder and C. Matheis (Eds.), Migration and Policy Practice: Interventions and Solutions (pp. 37-57). Palgrave Macmillan.
Mummendey, A., Klink, A., & Brown, R. (2001). Nationalism and patriotism: National
identification and out-group rejection. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40 (2), 159-172. doi: 10.1348/014466601164740
Nagy, S.R. (2015). Immigration best practices: Why pragmatic immigration policies are beneficial for immigrants and for Japan. In S.R. Nagy, Japan’s demographic revival:
Rethinking migration, identity and sociocultural norms, 363-386. Singapore: World Scientific.
National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. (2017). Population Statistics of Japan 2017. Retrieved from http://www.ipss.go.jp
Neiman, M., Johnson, M., & Bowler, S. (2006). Partisanship and views about immigration in Southern California: Just how partisan is the issue of migration? International Migration, 44 (2), 35-56. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2435.2006.00363.x
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a
tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Nguyen, Q., & Bernauer, T. (2018). Does social trust affect public support for international trade? Insights from an experiment in Vietnam. Political Studies, 67 (2), 440-458.
Nho, C.R., & Lee, E. (2016). Trends in marriage migration and the well-being of Southeast Asian wives in Korea. Journal of Social Welfare and Human Rights, 4 (2), 17-33. doi:
10.15640/10.15640/jswhr.v4n2a2
Nippon Communications Foundation. (2018, April 12). International marriages in Japan decline from 2006 peak. Retrieved from https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00173/
Norris, P. (Ed.). (1999). Critical citizens: Global support for democratic governance. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Oh, J.E., Kang, D.K., Shin, J.J., Lee, S.L., Lee, S.B., Chung, K. (2012). Migration profile of the Republic of Korea, IOM MRTC Research Report Series No 2011-01. Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea: The IOM Migration Research and Training Centre.
Orcés, D.M. (2009). Democratic values and public opinion toward immigrants: The case of Ecuador. Latin American Politics and Society, 51 (4), 131-155.
Page, B.I., & Shapiro, R.Y. (1983). Effects of public opinion on policy. The American Political Science Review, 77 (1), 175-190. doi: 10.2307/1956018
Park, G.Y. (2017, March 22). More Koreans get married late – or not at all. The Korea Herald.
Retrieved from http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20170322000863
Park, Y.B. (2017, March 1). South Korea carefully tests waters on immigration, with a focus on temporary workers. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved from
https://www.migrationpolicy.org
Pedersen, A., Attwell, J., & Heveli, D. (2005). Prediction of negative attitudes toward Australian asylum seekers: False beliefs, nationalism, and self-esteem. Australian Journal of
Psychology, 57 (3), 148-160. doi: 10.1080/00049530500125157
Pedersen, A., & Walker, I. (1997). Prejudice against Australian aborigines: Old fashioned and modern forms. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27 (5), 561-587.
Peffley, M., & Rohrschneider, R. (2003). Democratization and political tolerance in seventeen countries: A multi-level model of democratic learning. Political Research Quarterly, 56 (3), 243-257.
‧
Pehrson, S., Vignoles, V., & Brown, R. (2009). National identification and anti-immigrant prejudice: Individual and contextual effects of national definitions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72 (1), 24-38. doi: 10.1177/019027250907200104
Pettigrew, T.F., & Meertens, R.W. (1995). Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe.
European Journal of Social Psychology, 25 (1), 57-75. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420250106 Pevnick, R. (2009). Social trust and the ethics of immigration policy. The Journal of Political
Philosophy, 17 (2), 146-167.
Power, J. (2019, May 11). Why South Korea and Japan are slowly learning to accept foreign workers. Retrieved from
https://www.scmp.com/week- asia/economics/article/3009799/how-korea-and-japan-learned-stop-worrying-and-love-foreign
Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling Alone. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Pryce, D.K. (2018). U.S. citizens’ current attitudes toward immigrants and immigration: A study from the General Social Survey. Social Science Quarterly, 99 (4), 1467-1483. doi:
10.1111/ssqu.12514
Rokeach, M. (1973). The structure of human values. New York: Free Press.
Rothstein, B., & Uslaner, E. (2005). All for one: Equality, corruption, and social trust. World Politics, 58 (1), 41-72. doi: 10.1353/wp.2006.0022
Sandelind, C. (2012). The renaissance of nationalism and attitudes to immigration. ECPR Graduate Conference, Bremen, Germany, July 4-6, 2012.
Sandovici, M.E., Jakobsen, T.G., Strabac, Z. (2012). Political nationalism and attitudes towards immigration: The interaction of knowledge and policy. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 19, (2). doi: 10.1163/157181112X639041
Schatz, R.T., Staub, E., Lavine, H. (1999). On the varieties of national attachment: Blind versus constructive patriotism. Political Psychology, 20 (1), 151-74.
Schwartz, S.H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the structure and content of human values?
Journal of Social Issues, 50, 19-46.
Sears, D.O. (1993). Symbolic politics: A socio-psychological theory. In S. Iyengar & W.
McGuire (Eds.), Explorations in political psychology (pp. 113-149). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
‧
Segovia, F., & Defever, R. American public opinion on immigrants and immigration policy.
Public Opinion Quarterly, 74 (2), 375-394. doi: 10.1093/poq/nfq006
Seol, D.H., Skrentny, J.D. (2009). Why is there so little migrant settlement in East Asia?
International Migration Review, 43 (3). DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2009.00778.x Shim, K, & Le, Y.S. (2018). Risk preferences and immigration attitudes: Evidence from four
East Asian countries. International Migration, 56 (5), 190-203. doi: 10.1111/imig.12481 Shipper, A.W. (2008). Fighting for Foreigners: Immigration and Its Impact on Japanese
Democracy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Sipinen, J., & Bäck, M. (2016). Generalized trust and perceptions of immigration in Europe.
ECPR General Conference, Prague, Czech Republic, September 7-10, 2016.
Skenderovic, D. (2007). Immigration and the radical right in Switzerland: Ideology, discourse, and opportunities. Patterns of Prejudice, 41 (2), 155-176. doi:
10.1080/00313220701265528
Sniderman, P.M., Hagendoorn, L, & Prior, M. (2004). Predisposing factors and situational triggers: exclusionary reactions to immigrant minorities. American Political Science Review, 98 (1), 35-49. doi: 10.1017/S000305540400098X
Staedicke, S., Batalova, J., & Zong, J. (2016, December 6). Top 10 of 2016 – Issue # 9: On the brink of demographic crisis, governments in East Asia turn slowly to immigration.
Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved from https://www.migrationpolicy.org
Statistics Korea. (2017). Marriage and divorce statistics (2000-2017). Retrieved from http://kostat.go.kr
Stolle, D., Soroka, S., & Johnston, R. (2008). When does diversity erode trust? Neighborhood diversity, interpersonal trust, and the mediating effect of social interactions. Political Studies, 56, 57-75. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9248.2007.00717.x
Strand, W. (2004). Opening the hermit kingdom. History Today, 54 (1). Retrieved from https://www.historytoday.com/archive/opening-hermit-kingdom
Strauss, C. (2012). Making sense of public opinion: American discourses about immigration and
Strauss, C. (2012). Making sense of public opinion: American discourses about immigration and