國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Chapter 5. Conclusion
This thesis seeks to provide a better understanding of a potential ethnic groups in Taiwan – the Hong Kong migrants, focusing on their identity. It has done so by answering the following questions: How do these Hong Kongers identify themselves?
Do they share any collective identity? If so, what is it and how is it embodied? In-depth interview and secondary literature analysis have been adopted to examine the identity- the sense of belonging- of Hong Kongers.
This thesis found that: for different groups of Hong Kongers in Taiwan, motives for moving to Taiwan and the challenges they faced are vary. For students, two main motives include diverse majors in university and personal political stance. If they want to stay in Taiwan after graduation, it‘s difficult for them to apply for a working visa because of the lack of knowledge of the system, especially for those studying
―unpopular majors‖. Dependents are the most common form of migration to Taiwan and they are willing to integrate into the society when compared to other migrants, their identity is less complex when compared to other groups of migrants. The investment migrants usually aged 45-65 or 30-35, they move to Taiwan for their own interest or the future of their children. Their motivations change from time to time, starting in 2014, it‘s more political oriented.
Nationalism is the sense of belonging behind the concept of nation (Anderson, 1993). ―Hong Kong nationalism‖ understood as the ideology of building an independent nation of Hong Kong did not appear to have attract much attention until recently and studies of it are rather scant. According to the finding of this thesis, it should be noted and indeed emphasized that although Hong Kongers in Taiwan do have a very strong and distinctive collective identity which identify themselves as
‗Hong Kongers‘ with the Taiwanese and the mainland Chinese as their main ‗the Other‘, it would be misleading to argue that a Hong Kong nationalism aiming to pursue an independent nation of Hong Kong is in the making.
As for the factors that have affected the national identity of Hong Kongers in Taiwan, the policy of the Hong Kong government, such as the Free and Independent
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Travelers policy towards mainland Chinese visitors to Hong Kong, and the consciousness of the differences in the ethnic sense between Hong Kong and mainland Chinese people stand out. This thesis concludes that first, Hong Kongers in Taiwan strongly identify themselves as ‗Hong Kongers‘; secondly, the conscious differences between Hong Kongers and the Chinese have shaped their identity; and finally, the sense of community is positively correlated with their identity.
The most prominent aspect of the identity of Hong Kongers in Taiwan is their sociocultural identity which is embodied for instance in their efforts to preserve Hong Kong culture by consciously forming a Hong Kong community through the SNSs, supporting the so-called Yellow Economic Circle, and speaking the language used by the vast majority of Hong Kong people, that is, Cantonese. As stated in previous chapters, the ―reproduction‖ of Hong Kong culture in Taiwan and the recall of collective memories reinforced the collective identity of Hong Kongers in Taiwan.
What should be noted is that politics, specifically the substantial change of the
―One Country, Two Systems‖ in Hong Kong, has been crucial for shaping the identity of young Hong Kongers in Taiwan. Some of the interviewees have a multiple or dual identities after marrying Taiwanese, and some of them already obtain the Taiwanese ID card. However, most of them still identify themselves as purely ―Hong Konger‖.
The analysis in this research is based on the three aspects of collective identity:
national identity, cultural identity and social identity:
The national identity of Hong Kongers can be affected by the policy of the Hong Kong Government and the comparison of two identities: Hong Kongers and Chinese. Here, the housing issue is a factor affecting sense of belonging; The cultural identity of Hong Kongers can be explained through the concept of collective memory, which includes the notion of communicative and cultural memory (Assmann, 1988).
For Hong Kongers in Taiwan, recalling collective memories is one way to preserve their home culture. Food culture is one of the examples; the social identity of Hong Kongers in Taiwan is highly linked to their sense of community. The political participation on social medias is highly related to identity and sense of community too.
The use of SNSs and the Yellow economic circle in Taiwan are two examples. Social
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
media allows Hong Kongers in Taiwan to connect, both online and offline. Hong Kongese restaurants or stores in Taiwan shows their political attitude and Hong Kongers in Taiwan also selectively visit restaurants or stores which share the same political stance with them. Their actions corresponded to the three factor model of social identity raised by Cameron (2004) and also linked with the component of
―membership‖ in the study of sense of community. Hong Kongers in Taiwan developed a multiple sense of community, and some strengthen the sense of belonging to their personal identity. Here, the ethnic economy and the Hong Kongese entrepreneurship might also be two potential research topics in the future.
As such, this thesis concludes that: Hong Kongers in Taiwan has a strong self-identification as ―Hong Kongers‖, the differences of ―Hong Kongers‖ and ―Chinese‖
shaped their identity, and that the sense of community correlates positively with their identity and both influence their political activities in Taiwan. This statement is derived from the analysis of the interviewee‘s behaviours and words. The evaluation is based on the theories of nationalism, identity and sense of community covered in Chapter 2.
I would like to further highlight the challenges faced by students graduating in Taiwan on applying the work visa. As a reference for all prospective overseas Chinese students who want to stay in Taiwan to explore their careers:
From this study, various university majors is one motive to attract students to study in Taiwan, and some of these are the unpopular majors. In the research paper published by the Workforce Development Agency of Taiwan, Ministry of Labour, they evaluated the effectiveness of the employment policy for foreign students, overseas Chinese students, and foreign students of Chinese origin in Taiwan. They draw seven conclusions; some of which correspond to the findings of this thesis: both students and enterprises have insufficient knowledge about the system; for the student who wants to apply for the work visa, they only have a few channels to ask or to understand the policy; only a few successful cases shared online. As suggested in the research paper, an internship program for overseas Chinese students could help these students to find a job in Taiwan. While for students studying unpopular majors, more
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
assistance is needed as even if they have internship experience in their own professions, they still failed to find a job.
As an example, two of the interviewees in this study studies unpopular majors in university. Interviewee H studied environmental engineering at university, and another interviewee D studied animal science. Both of them were unable to find a job in their own profession after graduation and their only wish is to stay and work in Taiwan, For some industry, it‘s too troublesome to apply a work visa for overseas Chinese students as the application process takes time to complete and they would rather seek other Taiwanese candidates for the same position, and some would not readily accept a young Hong Kong co-worker. And even if these students found a job, they still need to make sure the company meet the requirement to apply the work visa.
Some overseas Chinese students like D are trying to find a job that requires their mother language, while there are also students like H, gave up and finding a job that he never thought of, to achieve his goal to stay in Taiwan. The two jobs were unrelated to their profession and they obtained the work visa within two or three months of summiting the application.
Some research limitations should be noted. As far as the potential contribution this thesis has made to the existing literature on the subject, this study only focuses on one specific group of migrants in Taiwan, that is the Hong Kongers. Moreover most of them studied in this thesis are students. The author of this thesis is fully aware that some factors such as the differences in the ages and original nations of the migrants, and the motives of migrating to other countries could have crucial impact on the findings. In addition, as demonstrating in the literature review chapter, existing studies on identity have drawn upon various theories and explored the subject from different aspect. This thesis examines mainly and only the formation of national, cultural and social identity of Hong Kongers- the Hong Kong identity- in Taiwan.
‧
engagement and social well-being in Italian adolescents. Journal of Community& Applied Social Psychology, 17(5), 387-406. doi:10.1002/casp.903
Alvin, S. (2016). The Making of Hong Kong Nationalism. In Asian Nationalism Reconsidered. New York: Routledge.
Anderson, M. R. (2009). Beyond Membership: A Sense of Community and Political Behavior. Political Behavior, 31(4), 603-627. doi:10.1007/s11109-009-9089-x Assmann, J. & Czaplicka, J. (1995). Collective Memory and Cultural Identity, New
German Critique, 65, 125-133. doi: 10.2307/488538
Au, A., Lai, D. W., Yip, H., Chan, S., Lai, S., Chaudhury, H., . . . Leeson, G. (2020).
Sense of Community Mediating Between Age-Friendly Characteristics and Life Satisfaction of Community-Dwelling Older Adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.
doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00086
Billig, M. (1995). Banal Nationalism. SAGE Publications Ltd. ISBN: 9780803975255.
Braungart, R. G. & Braungart, M. M. (1986). Life-course and generational politics.
Annual Review of Sociology, 12, 205-231. doi:
10.1146/annurev.so.12.080186.001225
Brewer, M. B. (1999). Multiple identities and identity transition: Implications for hong kong. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(2), 187-197.
doi:10.1016/s0147-1767(98)00034-0
Brinkerhoff, J. M. (2009). Diasporas, Identity, and Information Technology. In Digital diasporas: Identity and transnational engagement. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Brown, A. D., Kouri, N., & Hirst, W. (2012). Memory's Malleability: Its Role in Shaping Collective Memory and Social Identity. Frontiers in Psychology, 3.
doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00257
Brown, R. L., & Rohlinger, D. A. (2015). The effect of political generation on identity and social change: Age cohort consequences. Journal of Women & Aging, 28(2), 96-111. doi:10.1080/08952841.2014.950138
Cabestan, J. (2005). The Many Facets of Chinese Nationalism. China Perspectives, 2005(3). doi:10.4000/chinaperspectives.2793
Cameron, J. E. (2004). A Three-Factor Model of Social Identity. Self and Identity, 3(3), 239-262. doi:10.1080/13576500444000047
‧
Capello, R. (2018). Interpreting and understanding territorial identity. Regional Science Policy & Practice, 11(1), 141-158. doi:10.1111/rsp3.12166
Cerulo, K. A. (1997). Identity Construction: New Issues, New Directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 23(1), 385-409. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.385
Chan, Y., & Koh, S. (2020). NEW CHINESE MIGRATIONS: Mobility, home, and inspirations. S.L.: ROUTLEDGE.
Chen, Y. (2013). Xianggang cheng bang lun. Xianggang: Tian chuang chu ban she you xian gong si.
Cheung, I. P. (2016). The Paradoxical Relationship among Hong Kong Local Discourse, Cultural Decolonization and Postcolonial Trauma: The Case of Queen‘s Pier Preservation Movement. A Journal of Cultural Studies, 23, Adolescent Immigrants in Canada. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33(3), 511-520. doi:10.1080/13691830701234830
Chr stu, A., & Mavroudi, E. (2018). Dismantling diasporas: Rethinking the geographies of diasporic identity, connection and development. London:
Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Cicognani, E., Klimstra, T., & Goossens, L. (2014). Sense Of Community, Identity Statuses, And Loneliness In Adolescence: A Cross-National Study On Italian And Belgian Youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 42(4), 414-432.
doi:10.1002/jcop.21618
Collier, M. (2001). Ethnic Economies. Short Essays prepared for classroom use, San
Francisco State University. Retrieved from:
https://online.sfsu.edu/mcollier/AAS_write/aas%20essays/econ.pdf.
Cornell, S., & Hartmann, D. (2007). Ethnicity and race: Making identities in a changing world. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Davidson, W. B., & Cotte, P. R. (1989). Sense of community and political participation. Journal of Community Psychology, 17(2), 119-125.
doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198904)17:23.0.co;2-c
Detaramani, C., & Lock, G. (2003). Multilingualism in Decline: Language Repertoire, Use and Shift in Two Hong Kong Indian Communities. Journal of Multilingual
and Multicultural Development, 24(4), 249-273.
doi:10.1080/01434630308666501
‧
interview. Medical Education, 40(4). 314-321. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02418.xDruckman, D. (1994). Nationalism, Patriotism, and Group Loyalty: A Social Psychological Perspective. Mershon International Studies Review, 38(1). 43-68.
Ellis, J. W. (2018). Hong Kong‘s Elusive Identity: Searching in the Past, Present, and Future. Asian Culture and History, 10(2), 90. doi:10.5539/ach.v10n2p90
Fung, A. (2004). Postcolonial Hong Kong identity: Hybridising the local and the national. Social Identities, 10(3), 399-414. doi:10.1080/1350463042000230854 Furman, R., Lamphear, G., & Epps, D. (2016). The immigrant other: Lived
experiences in a transnational world. New York: Columbia University Press.
Gentles, S. J., Charles, C., Ploeg, J., & McKibbon, K. A. (2015). Sampling in Qualitative Research: Insights from an Overview of the Methods Literature. The Qualitative Report, 20(11), 1772-1789.
George C.S. Lin. (2002). Hong Kong and the globalisation of the Chinese diaspora: a geographical perspective. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 43(1), 63-91.
Grange, A. L., & Ming, Y. N. (2001). Social Belonging, Social Capital and the Promotion of Home Ownership: A Case Study of Hong Kong. Housing Studies, 16(3), 291-310. doi:10.1080/02673030120049689
Grasso, A. (1998). “Note sul concetto di identità territoriale”, Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana, n. 3, p. 617.
Hall, S. (1990). Cultural Identity and Diaspora. In Identity: Community, Culture, Difference. London: Lawrence & Wishart.
Hall, S. (1996). Ethnicity: Identity and Difference. In Becoming National: A reader, New York: Oxford University Press.
Hall, S. (2011). ―Who needs identity?,‖ In Questions of Cultural Identity. London:
Sage.
Hall S., Held D., Hubert D. & Thompson K. (1996). Modernity An Introduction to Modern Societies. New Jersey: Blackwell Publishers.
He, B., Guo, Y. (2000). NATIONALISM, NATIONAL IDENTITY AND DEMOCRATIZATION IN CHINA. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
Horowitz, M. J. (2012). Self-identity theory and research methods. Journal of Research Practice, 8(2). Article M14. Retrieved from http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/jrp/article/view/296/261.
Huddy, L. (2001). From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory. Political Psychology, 22(1), 127-156. doi:10.1111/0162-895x.00230
‧
Hughes, C. R. (2014). Taiwan and chinese nationalism. London: Routledge.
Hughes, C. R. (2006). Chinese nationalism in the global era. London: Routledge.
Jasperse, M., Ward, C., & Jose, P. E. (2011). Identity, Perceived Religious Discrimination, and Psychological Well-Being in Muslim Immigrant Women.
Applied Psychology, 61(2), 250-271. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2011.00467.x Kaeding, M. P. (2011). Identity Formation in Taiwan and Hong Kong – How Much
Difference, How Many Similarities?. In Taiwanese Identity in the 21st Century:
domestic, regional and global perspectives. London: Routledge.
Kenyon, D. B., & Carter, J. S. (2010). Ethnic identity, sense of community, and psychological well-being among northern plains American Indian youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(1), 1-9. doi:10.1002/jcop.20412
Klandermans, P. G. (2013). Identity Politics and Politicized Identities: Identity Processes and the Dynamics of Protest. Political Psychology, 35(1), 1-22. post-colonial education in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(4), 433-448. doi:10.1080/02188791.2010.519691
Kwan, J. P. (2016). The Rise of Civic Nationalism: Shifting Identities in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Contemporary Chinese Political Economy and Strategic Relations:
An International Journal, 2(2), 941-973.
Larsson, A., & Teigland, R. (2020). Digital transformation and public services societal impacts in Sweden and beyond. London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Ley, D., & Kobayashi, A. (2005). Back to Hong Kong: Return migration or transnational sojourn? Global Networks, 5(2), 111-127. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0374.2005.00110.x
Li, C. S. (2009). Towards ‗biliteracy and trilingualism‘ in Hong Kong (SAR):
Problems, dilemmas and stakeholders‘ views. AILA Review 22 (1):72-84. DOI:
10.1075/aila.22.06li
Light, I. H., & Gold, S. J. (2008). Ethnic economies. Bingley, UK: JAI Press/ Emerald Pub. Group.
Light, I. H., & Karageorgis. S. (1994). The Ethnic Economy. In Handbook of Economic Sociology. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
‧
geographical perspective. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 43(1), 63-91.doi:10.1111/1467-8373.00158
Lin, S. S. (2014). Bridging the Chinese National Identity Gap: Alternative Identities in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Joint U.S.-Korea Academic Studies, 25, 113-132.
Liu, Q., & Turner, D. (2018). Identity and national identity, Educational Philosophy and Theory, 50(12), 1080-1088. DOI: 10.1080/00131857.2018.1434076
Ma, R. (2009). Communication Experiences and Adaptation of Mainland Chinese in Hong Kong and Hong Kong Chinese in Mainland China. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 38(2), 115-132. doi:10.1080/17475751003787429 Mak, W. W., Cheung, R. Y., & Law, L. S. (2009). Sense of Community in Hong
Kong: Relations with Community-Level Characteristics and Residents‘ Well-Being. American Journal of Community Psychology, 44(1-2), 80-92.
doi:10.1007/s10464-009-9242-z
Masolo, D. A. (2002). Community, identity and the cultural space. Rue Descartes, 36(2), 19. doi:10.3917/rdes.036.0019
Mcmillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198601)14:13.0.co;2-i
Mercuri, S. P. (2012). Understanding the Interconnectedness between Language Choices, Cultural Identity Construction and School Practices in the Life of a Latina Educator. Gist Education and Learning Research Journal, 6, 12-43.
Miller, H., & Miller, K. (1996). Language Policy and Identity: the case of Catalonia.
International Studies in Sociology of Education, 6(1), 113-128.
doi:10.1080/0962021960060106
Modongal, S., & Lu, Z. (2016). Development of nationalism in China. Cogent Social Sciences, 2(1), 1235749. doi:10.1080/23311886.2016.1235749
Montanari, M. (2006). Food is culture. New York: Columbia University Press.
Norton, B. (n.d.). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow: Longman.
Ong, A. (2006). Flexible citizenship: The cultural logics of transnationality. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.
Phinney, J. S., Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K., & Vedder, P. (2001). Ethnic Identity, Immigration, and Well-Being: An Interactional Perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3), 493-510. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00225
Post, D., Pong, S., & Ou, D. (2014). One Country Two Peoples? Asian Population Studies, 11(1), 67-93. doi:10.1080/17441730.2014.947699
‧
Prinz, A. (2019). Migration, Cultural Identity and Diasporas An Identity Economics Approach. IZA Journal of Development and Migration, 10(1).
doi:10.2478/izajodm-2019-0001
Robinson, O. C. (2013). Sampling in Interview-Based Qualitative Research: A Theoretical and Practical Guide. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 11(1), 25-41. doi:10.1080/14780887.2013.801543
Rovira, Lourdes C. (2008). THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY. THE USE OF THE HOME LANGUAGE AS A HUMAN RIGHT OF THE IMMIGRANT. REMHU - Revista Interdisciplinar da Mobilidade Humana, 16(31),63-81.[fecha de Consulta 19 de Enero de 2021]. ISSN:
1980-8585. Disponible en:
https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=4070/407042009004
Safran, W. (2008). Language, ethnicity and religion: A complex and persistent linkage. Nations and Nationalism, 14(1), 171-190. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8129.2008.00323.x
Sakai, J. (2015). Japanese bankers in the city of London: Language, culture and identity in the Japanese diaspora. London: Routledge.
Sheffer, G. (1986). Modern Diaspora in International Politics. Taylor & Francis.
Steinhardt, H. C., Li, L. C., & Jiang, Y. (2018). The Identity Shift in Hong Kong since 1997: Measurement and Explanation. Journal of Contemporary China, 27(110), 261-276. doi:10.1080/10670564.2018.1389030
Stekelenburg, J. V. (2013). Collective Identity. In The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. doi:
10.1002/9780470674871
Tajfel, H. (1979). Individuals and groups in social psychology*. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18(2), 183-190. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1979.tb00324.x
Tang, W., & Darr, B. (2014). Chinese Nationalism and its Political and Social Origins.
Construction of Chinese Nationalism in the Early 21st Century, 1-16.
doi:10.4324/9781315772172-1
Taylor, V., & Whittier, N.E. (1992). Collective identity in social movement communities: Lesbian feminist mobilization. In Frontiers of Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Tempelman, S. (1999). Constructions of Cultural Identity: Multiculturalism and Exclusion. Political Studies, 47(1), 17-31. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.00185
Teo, S. Y. (2007). Vancouver‘s newest Chinese diaspora: settlers or ‗immigrant prisoners‘?. GeoJournal, 68(2-3). 211-222. doi:10.1007/s10708-007-9071-2
‧
ethnic identification, group essentialism and protestant ethic. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34(6), 647-661. doi:10.1002/ejsp.222Wan, K., & Wong, S. H. (2019). The Housing Boom and the Rise of Localism in Hong Kong: Evidence from the Legislative Council Election in 2016. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3472067
Wang, L. (2007). Diaspora, Identity and Cultural Citizenship: The Hakkas in
‗Multicultural Taiwan‘. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(5), 875-895.
doi:10.1080/01419870701491861
Wei, L., & Hua, Z. (2010). Voices from the diaspora: Changing hierarchies and dynamics of Chinese multilingualism. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2010(205). doi:10.1515/ijsl.2010.043 Kong, 1998–2017. Journal of Contemporary Asia.
DOI:10.1080/00472336.2020.1799235
Wang, H. L. (2014). Understanding Contemporary Chinese Nationalism: Institutions, Structures of Feeling, and Cognitive Frames. A Journal of Cultural Studies, 19, 189-250. doi: 10.6752/JCS.201409_(19).0013
Wei, Y. (1997). From ―Multi System Nations‖ to ―Linkage Communities‖: A New Conceptual Scheme for the Integration of Divided Nations. Issues & Studies, 33 (10). 21st century. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press.
Yuen, S. (2015). Hong Kong After the Umbrella Movement. China Perspectives, 2015(1), 49-53. doi: 10.4000/chinaperspectives.6656.
‧
‧
Australia Bureau of Statistics. (n.d.). Statistical Language - Quantitative and Qualitative data. Retrieved April, 2020, from https://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/a3121120.nsf/home/statistical
Boyce, C. and Neale, P. (2006). Conducting In-Depth Interviews: A Guide for Designing and Conducting In-Depth Interviews for Evaluation Input. Retrieved
April, 2020, from
http://www2.pathfinder.org/site/DocServer/m_e_tool_series_indepth_interviews.
Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. (2018).
Fertility Trend in Hong Kong, 1981 to 2017. Retrieved October, 2020, from
Fertility Trend in Hong Kong, 1981 to 2017. Retrieved October, 2020, from