Chapter 2. Literature Review
2.2 Identity
2.2.3 National Identity
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would be more likely to leave and migrate to other countries where substantial Chinese communities already exist. In which related to the migration trend in Hong Kong nowadays, people usually migrate to countries and cities where a large group of Hong Kongers live. These figures also represent the way in which most Hong Kongers identify themselves: purely Hong Kongers or Chinese Hong Kongers.
2.2.3 National Identity
National identity is the last aspect of identity to be discussed in this study.
National identity is an important form of collective identity (Wong, Zheng and Wan, 2020). It refers to the identity of the citizens of a country with their own country‘s historical and cultural traditions, moral values, ideals, beliefs, national sovereignty, and so on (Liu & Turner, 2018). According to Bao & Guo (2000), the strong source of national identity in modern society includes civic and territorial identity. As an international city with a complex demographic composition, territorial identity may be one aspect of identity of Hong Kong. ―Hong Kongers‖ are not simply equal to the Chinese and the identification of Hong Kongers should not only be limited to their nationality. Territorial identity is located under the study of geography and has acquired a considerable position in the geographic analysis (Grasso, 1998). Capello (2018) defines territorial identity as: “the presence of socio‐economic context conditions allowing convergence between collective and private interests, and feeding a sense of belonging and loyalty to a community” and Guermond defines it as: “an individual feeling restricted to a small area, is instrumentalised politically, via a change of scale, in order to construct regional or national identities”.
Some studies on Hong Kong‘s national identity focuses on its comparison with the local identity or identifications. The development of Hong Kong identity has been affected by many factors. One is the makeup of people: most Hong Kongers are immigrants from China or their descendants. Until the Qing dynasty, Hong Kong was treated as a part of Guangdong Province. The population growth of Hong Kong began in the 1840s, during the First Opium War. From the 1930s to the 1960s, due to the Sino-Japanese War and the Great Chinese Famine, plenty of Chinese stowaways to Hong Kong by sea. In 1949, the Hong Kong government began issuing identity
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document and banned all illegal immigrants from China. The Chinese who settle down in Hong Kong are now part of Hong Kongers and their descendants had become the local Hong Kongers.
The figure below shows how Hong Kongers identify themselves between 1997 and 2019:
Figure 3. How Hong Kongers identify themselves, 1997-2019.
Note. Data retrieved from the Kong Public Opinion Research Institude (2020). The annual average values have been calculated by the author.
From 1997 to 2018, ―mixed identity‖ is still the answer which most of the respondents chose, while the number of people who chose ―Hong Kongers in China‖
remains between 20 and 30%. Changes in political structure create changes in the context in which social identities are forged and take their meaning (Brewer, 1999).
When we look at the detailed figures for 2008, in the first half of the year, those who think they are Chinese continued to increase. The reason might be the Beijing Olympics in August, which enhance the sense of belonging of Hong Kongers.
However, this was followed by a sharp decline in the second half of the year. In 2008, some incidents occurred in China, which might decrease the trust in the central government. Among these incidents, the Chinese milk scandal broke out in September
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2008 affected Hong Kong the most. Many deformed babies were found in China and the Chinese government tried to cover the news for over six months and these powdered milk have already poisoned a lot of babies. Chinese people flocked to Hong Kong, make a run for the powdered milk produced in Japan. This leads to a shortage of milk powder in Hong Kong and raises dissatisfaction of Hong Kongers with the Chinese Central Government and the Chinese people.
Since 2011, the number of respondents who answered ―Hong Konger‖ has already doubled the number of those who answered ―Chinese‖. In the year 2019, the data faced a rapid change: over 50% of respondents identify themselves as ―Hong Konger‖, which is the highest number since 1997 and it has become the most popular choice; 11% of respondents identify themselves as ―Chinese in Hong Kong‖ and
―Chinese‖ with both figures being the lowest number since 1997; ―mixed identity‖
also saw a rapid decline from 41% in 2018 to 34% in 2019. Based on these data, it is clear that the Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement has strengthened the notion of ―Hong Konger‖ and accelerated the indigenization of Hong Kong. However, the above discussion provides only data and information without further analysis; for example, personal experience and the reason behind it, the data couldn‘t let us understand the Hong Konger's identification. Digging answers with in-depth interviews is important for us to understand Hong Konger‘s perspective.
In the previous section, I‘ve mentioned that linguistics affect one‘s identity and discussed how language affects the formation of cultural identity. Miller and Miller‘s (1996) pointed out that for nationalism, education and language are important for the construction of national identity. Indeed, since 1997, China used language and education as tools to shape the national identity in Hong Kong, which reflects on the changes of the education system and course structure in Hong Kong. As one of the Hong Kongers who have born after the 1990s, I experienced most these changes. The promotion of Putonghua in school is one example that China utilizes language to shape the national identity in Hong Kong. One difference of Hong Kongers and Chinese is the language they speak and the character used in daily life. For Hong Kongers, most of them speaks Cantonese and use traditional characters, while Chinese speaks Putonghua and use simplified characters. Right after the transfer of
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2009). In 1998, Putonghua became one of the courses of the primary school of Hong Kong, and the Beijing accent was used as the basis of it.Besides, right after 1997, the Hong Kong government began to promote the National Education in Hong Kong, which includes the national flag-raising ceremony, the China study trips and exchange programs in China. Students are familiar with the Chinese national anthem and have been taught about everything in China, including the history, the national flag and the meanings behind it since primary school. The selective dimensions of China are exposed to the students in these trips and exchange programmes (Kuah-Pearce and Fong, 2010). During my secondary school, I‘ve been to one of these study trips too. Actually, we spent most of the time sightseeing, with a guide explaining the history of the spots. From my own perspectives, I do agree that what we saw in the trip is the selective dimensions of China.
In 2012, the Education Bureau of Hong Kong proposed the school curriculum of moral and national education, some suggested that it‘s a ―brain-washing‖ course to students. A few protests were organized to against this curriculum in 2012, which draws students and parent‘s attention to review the China-related contents in current studies. In the same year, the 3-2-2-3 educational system (3 years junior high school, 2 years high school, 2 years of matriculation course and 3 years of university education) was replaced by the 3-3-4 scheme (3 years junior high school, 3 years high school and 4 years of university education) in Hong Kong. A new course - liberal studies became one of the core subjects, part the curriculum included the development of China, Hong Kong, and globalization. Critical thinking is one important that must be learned. In 2020, one of the Liberal studies exam questions of the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination (HKDSE) asked about press freedom and social responsibility, which leads to a discussion of what should be taught in liberal studies and what students should learn from it. Indeed, after the storming of the Legislative Council Complex on July 1, 2019, former chief executive Tung Chee-hwa
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said that the liberal studies he promotes are a failure, and the Anti- Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement stems from a lack of understanding of China (Citizen News, 2019).
With the change of school curriculum, education in Hong Kong will continue to affect identity construction. In the 2017 policy address, the new chief executive of Hong Kong - Carrie Lam Cheng Yuet-ngor requested all secondary schools to define the Chinese history course as the main subject, starting with the 2018-19 school year.
Then in 2018, the Education Bureau of Hong Kong announced the revised curriculum frameworks for Junior Secondary Chinese History and History, it will be implemented progressively starting from September 2020 at the earliest. From Lau (2017), the revised curriculum can be concluded in three main points: understanding historical facts, reviewing and analyzing the historical facts and understanding the development of Chinese history and promoting national identity and sense of belonging. In the 2020‘s HKDSE exam, a question in the history exam paper draws the attention of the Hong Kong society. The question asked whether Japan bring more advantages or disadvantages to China during 1900-1945. The Education Bureau of Hong Kong soon announced and requested the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) to cancel the question as they believe that the question and the source provided students with a guide to answer in a certain stance. While this type of questions frequently appears in the HKDSE history exam and the aim of the history course is how students cite and analyze the source to support their own views (Lau, 2020). How the Education Bureau of Hong Kong handle this case did reflect that education of Hong Kong has been affected by politics, this led to the dissatisfaction of the society and the academia (Tang, 2020).
2.2.4 Diaspora and identity
Diaspora means a group of people who spread from one original country to other countries. Under globalization, countries have a closer connection; people could flow to another country more easily. Study of diaspora located under the study of multiculturalism - promoting inclusive and respect choices of people, the purpose is to understand the living experience and voices of those who live in host countries.
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Identity under any circumstances is a complex construct, it‘s even more complicated by the diaspora experience and the many influence that experience yields (Brinkerhoff, 2009). Most of the papers related to Hong Kong diaspora are about Chinese diaspora, which included Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau in ―Greater China‖. But it‘s not precise to include these three places in ―Chinese diaspora‖ when we only study one of them, as all three of them actually have a different historical path from China.
Hong Kongers are diasporic people. After the 99 years colonial experience by the U.K., changing political and economic environment affected their choices to stay or leave Hong Kong. Migration changes the diasporic experience of people. For Hong Kongers, they chose to migrate to the U.S., U.K., Canada or Australia in the 1990s and now some of them also decided to migrate to Taiwan. One research related to Hong Kong diaspora is: in Sin‘s paper published in 2007, he discusses the Chinese diaspora in Vancouver and he pointed out that during the 1980s and 1990s, the popular representation of successful, well-educated immigrant entrepreneurs was from Hong Kong and a wave of Hong Kong diaspora can be observed.
For Hong Kongers in Taiwan, they are at another level of the diaspora. Sheffer (1986) defines modern diaspora as ethnic minority groups of migrant origins, residing and acting in host countries but maintaining strong sentimental and material links with their country of origin. Generally, Hong Kongers in Taiwan can be divided into a few groups: students who currently studying in universities in Taiwan; students who graduated in Taiwan and obtained the work visa; investment migrants; dependents.
Hong Kongers in Taiwan still maintain a strong connection with their homeland, through geographic convenience in the past and also through the popularity of the internet now. These Hong Kongers still has strong ethnicism, although they might stay in a host country for a long period of time, they still have frequent interaction with their mother country - society, politics, culture and economics (Liu, 2008).
Especially after the popularity of social media, these had been frequently used to maintain and link with their homeland. Virtual community created a space to express people‘s identity, allows migrants constantly, actively and closely interacting with Hong Kong.
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Diaspora identity lives with and through, not despite, difference; by hybridity (Hall, 1990) and identity transforms migrants from the physical reality of dispersal into the psychosocial reality of diaspora (Butler, 2001). The mix of characteristics from Hong Kong and Taiwan, and lived experience might leads to diasporic hybrid identity, and it encompasses important distinctions: between those who have migrated and those who remain in the home country (Brinkerhoff, 2009).
This section discussed the concept of identity, which focuses on three aspects of collective identity: cultural, social and national identity. Linguistics and the differences between ―local‖ and ―Chinese‖ continue to affect Hong Kong identity.
However, in order to understand the identity of Hong Kongers in Taiwan, the diaspora identity could also be an aspect. Will Hong Kongers in Taiwan define themselves as hybrid identity? What perspective will they take to define their own identity? How do they present their identity in the host country?
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Chapter 3. Hong Kongers in Taiwan
Hong Kongers in Taiwan can be divided into several groups, this chapter will introduce three groups of them: students, dependents and investment migrants.
Through their narration, this chapter will address why they moved to Taiwan and their characteristics. The reason behind their decision is complicated, and it seems that no matter how or why these Hong Kongers moved to Taiwan, there are political implications that affect their decisions or actions. However, the sample in this study may not represent all Hong Kongers in Taiwan. After knowing their background, the next chapter will begin to discuss their identity.
Immigration nonetheless constitutes a strategic domain wherein external changes and internal factors (demographic, political, legal, socioeconomic, and cultural) intersect to influence the definitions of identity and the forms of distinction in society (Ku, 2004). In recent decades, Hong Kong migrants in Taiwan can be mainly divided into several groups; most of them are students, Hong Kongers who married to Taiwanese, investment migrants, or dependents. From Chan & Fung (2018), quality lifestyle and justifiable urban space, political space and alternative Chinese space are the main reason why Hong Kongers migrate to Taiwan. According to the interviews, what these migrants pursue affects the place where they live: those who pursue Hong Kong-style living will migrate to Taipei City or New Taipei City, those who pursue a relaxed and comfortable life will migrate to Taichung or Kaohsiung. The main reason for migration has also changed from time to time, political events in Hong Kong is one factor affecting migrant‘s decision.
For Hong Kong students studying in Taiwan, some came to Taiwan as there are various major in universities; some came to Taiwan as they have no university offer in Hong Kong. For dependents, their decision to move to Taiwan is relatively simple in comparison to students or investment migrants – to live with their family/
spouse. For investment migrants, most came to enjoy life after retirement and some wants to provide better life for their next generation.
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3.1 Studying in Taiwan and career
The median monthly earnings in Taiwan is approximately 41,000 Taiwan Dollar (TWD), with most of the new graduate earning 28,000 to 36,000 TWD per month; the median of monthly earnings in Hong Kong is around 17,750 Hong Kong Dollar (HKD), most of the new graduate earning 12,000 to 15,000 HKD per month.
Compare two of them, a new graduate from Hong Kong makes 2/3 more than a new graduate from Taiwan, why do some Hong Kong students still choose to study in Taiwan? What is their career plan after graduation from Taiwan?
In Hong Kong, studying in other countries has been a popular trend since 2012, after the change in the education system. Following the 2019 Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement, more students decided to leave Hong Kong. Especially those who participated in the movement, they were forced to leave and avoid the political score-settling. Compared to other countries, it‘s more affordable to study in Taiwan. For Hong Kong students, there are several ways to apply to Taiwan universities: individual application, joint admissions, or direct application 4 . In the school year 2019-2020, there are 6,824 Hong Kong students studying at universities and colleges in Taiwan (Ministry of Education, 2019). I organized the data from the University Entrance Committee for Overseas Chinese Students, in order to understand the trend of Hong Kong students who: admitted to universities through the individual application; admitted to master‘s or doctoral program through the individual application and admitted to universities or masters or doctoral through joint admission.
4 Retrieved from: https://cmn-hant.overseas.ncnu.edu.tw/from/hongkong
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Table 4. Number of Hong Kong Students admitted to universities of Taiwan, 2014-2020
Note. Data retrieved from the University Entrance Committee for Overseas Chinese Students
In the 2010s, the Department of International and Cross-strait Education of Taiwan modified the policies related to Hong Kong and Macau students5, which attracted lots of Hong Kong students to study in Taiwan. In particular, following the change in the education system in Hong Kong in 2012, many Hong Kong students universities in Taiwan increased, which proves that political incidents in Hong Kong in 2019 affected students decision to study abroad. Another main point here is the trend of students who are admitted to master‘s or doctoral programs through
5Retrieved from:
https://depart.moe.edu.tw/ed2500/News_Content.aspx?n=79D4CEEC271FCB57&sms=70BE182A03B
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individual applications: the number of students has grown steadily since 2014 and has grown rapidly from 218 in 2019 to 375 in 2020, with an increase of 72%. What‘s the reason behind their decision?
According to the interviewees, there are a few reasons that encourage students to come to Taiwan. An interesting reason for their choice to study in Taiwan is: there are many choices on the major in Taiwan. For instance, the interviewees‘ study diverse majors in Taiwan: E applied for a master‘s degree in performing arts after graduation from a university in Taiwan. She thinks that there are a few opportunities in Hong Kong to study in this field, but in Taiwan, she has more freedom to choose what she likes to study. E also shares her roommates experience in choosing her path after graduation, Hong Kong has no chance for students who have studied in her major (wildlife conservation) and Taiwan offers a chance for her to continue studying
According to the interviewees, there are a few reasons that encourage students to come to Taiwan. An interesting reason for their choice to study in Taiwan is: there are many choices on the major in Taiwan. For instance, the interviewees‘ study diverse majors in Taiwan: E applied for a master‘s degree in performing arts after graduation from a university in Taiwan. She thinks that there are a few opportunities in Hong Kong to study in this field, but in Taiwan, she has more freedom to choose what she likes to study. E also shares her roommates experience in choosing her path after graduation, Hong Kong has no chance for students who have studied in her major (wildlife conservation) and Taiwan offers a chance for her to continue studying