Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.6. Summary
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subcategory of situational code-switching, with both being caused by the factor of social identification.
2.5.2.4.3. We Code and They Code
Gumperz (1982) adopts anthropological view of code-switching, and regards code-switching as a kind of social phenomena. He believes that the usage of code-switching is motivated by certain social purpose, and that it is also accompanied with the change of the relationship between the interlocutors. Therefore, he proposes the notion of we code and they code. As Gumperz suggests, code-switching is the shifting between the ethnically minority language and majority language, with the minority language being regarded as we code (i.e. the in-group language that is associated with familiarity, solidarity, or informal activities), while the majority language being they code (which is associated with formal, out group relationship). Therefore, code-switching can be used to reveal interlocutors’ identities and relationship.
Gal (1979:116) provides a classic example in which a Hungarian-speaking woman in Austria uses the majority language, German, to show retort to her husband. In this case, the woman shifts from minority language (i.e. we code) to majority language (i.e. they code) in order to enlarge the social distance between her and her husband, and thus cause the effect of repression.
2.6. Summary
The above studies indicate that stylistic variation of every kind may serve as a tool to manifest frames on different functional layers. It is based on this point that this study is designed.
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Chapter 3 Methodology
In this chapter, the research design of this study is described, including data collection, data analysis, and criteria for data classification.
3.1. Data Collection 3.1.1. Data Sources
This study is corpus-based. All of the data are from face-to-face spontaneous conversations, extracted from NCCU Corpus of Spoken Mandarin. In NCCU corpus, conversations last between twenty to forty minutes. Within each conversation, at least two interlocutors are involved. All of these conversations address to topics of daily affairs (including jobs, school life, friend’s marriage, and traveling), also some of them include social issues (such as food safety issues in Taiwan), and also some contain professional talks (such as global warming). In addition, the word frequency is based on Academia Sinica Corpus.
3.1.2. Sampling
Data analyzed in this study are all from face-to-face spontaneous communication between two interlocutors. Also, although effect of gender is not examined in this study, both same-gender and cross-gender conversations are included to secure data balance. In total, seven conversations are analyzed, including three cross-gender conversations, two male-to-male ones, and two female-to-female ones.
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Following the same line, the interlocutors in the conversations are of similar age, ranging between twenty-three years old to twenty-five years old.
3.2. Measurement
Owing to the extracted data in this study are all spontaneous spoken data, it is clearer to use “turn” as measurement of linguistic unit to count the frequency of stylistic variation. For instance, in the same turn, when the speaker shifts form high density words to low density words, ignoring how many low density lexical items are, this wound count once. Furthermore, different linguistic criteria would count separately.
In addition, only the goals of stylistic shifting are categorized and counted; the sources of stylistic shifting are ignored in this study.
The results of data analysis are presented in percentage as well as in frequency.
3.3. Criteria for Data Classification 3.3.1. Linguistic Criteria
In this study, both lexical and syntactic devices for stylistic variation were examined.
3.3.1.1. Lexical Level
On lexical level, it is hypothesized that SVF involves shifting of semantic density of word, word formality, and word frequency.
1. Semantic density of word
The measurement of semantic density is determined by how much information conveyed in the lexical item. In this study, semantic density of a lexical item is
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divided into low density and high density. Both stylistic shifting form high density words to low density words and that in opposite direction were examined in this study.
Linguistic features related to the judgment of lexical semantic density include ellipsis, pro-form, pragmatic particle, discourse marker, technical term & jargon, and syntactic particle. These features are illustrated one by one below.
a. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is one of the linguistic features which indicates low semantic density.
Ellipsis includes abbreviation, blending, and acronym. In this study, only abbreviation and blending are found in the data. Example (1) is an illustration of ellipsis.
(1)
M: ..那你爸媽會煩惱嗎
F: (0)不會..因為我爸媽不會幫他出錢..但是我媽會催他趕快結婚
M: …那你爸媽會煩說以後還要…如果他不..不..就以後沒有什麼工作..
啊以後結婚還要他幫他出錢..這樣
In example (1), the two interlocutors are discussing a quite serious topic－job.
In this example, the male speaker shifts from the word “煩惱” to an abbreviation “煩,”
which is taken as a lexical item of low semantic density.
b. Pro-form
Pro-form, as a substitute of a full form, the semantic content of which is subtracted, is regarded as a feature of low semantic density words. In this study, pro-form includes pronominalization and substitution, which replace the original noun or verb. The example of pro-form is showed below.
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In example (2), the female speaker shifts from high density word (jargon such as “全球經濟體系”) to pro-form “他們,” which is considered as a lexical item of low semantic density.
c. Pragmatic particle
Pragmatic particle, which is a word that carries only functional meaning, denotes no semantic referential meaning. Therefore, it is considered as a feature of low semantic density. Example (3) is an illustration of pragmatic particle.
(3)
M2: ...(1.4)可我覺得台大心理跟我..唸心輔..其實原來好像不太一樣 M1: ... (0.4) 大學部的東西..我覺得..不知道
M2: ..(TSK)我覺得還是差滿多的耶..台大的很...(0.5)很...(0.6)很
In example (3), speaker M2 shifts from using high density words (such as the jargons of “台大心理” and “心輔”) and not using pragmatic particle to using pragmatic particle such as “耶” to imply his attitude and disagreement to M1. In here,
“耶” is regarded as low semantic density word.
d. Discourse marker
Discourse marker, like pragmatic particle, has no surface referential meaning either. Discourse marker can help to regulate the communication process, instead of denoting a semantic meaning. Therefore, it is regarded as a feature of low semantic density. Example (4) is the illustration of discourse marker.
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In example (4), the female speaker shifts from high density jargon such as “全 球暖化” and “二氧化碳排放量” to a discourse marker “對,” which is used as a form
to regulate the communication process. It is thus considered as a low semantic density word.
e. Technical term & jargon
Technical term & jargon are used in professional field or in a special activity by a group of people involved. Since interpretation of technical term & jargon require special background knowledge, they are considered as high semantic density words.
Example (5) illustrates this point.
(5)
可是這也很好笑..他們如果現在就是短視近利的話..其實未來..那什麼…
如果到時候海平面上升的話..其實先淹的一定是沿海城市..可是很多國家
都是靠沿海城市在發展經濟..然後到時候全球經濟體系也會變
In example (5), the speaker shifts from low density fragmental expressions (such as “先淹的”) to the jargon “全球經濟體系,” a high semantic density word.
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f. Syntactic particle
Syntactic particle involves in using question marker “嗎,” which semantically denotes a question, is taken as a feature of high semantic density word. Example (6) depicts this point.
(6)
M: ..對啊..就是..節目在講的…就整個炸掉..然後那個…旁邊的車全部都是 血就變紅了..地板上也全部都是紅的..那種…鯨魚的血肉整個都..炸飛..
整隻喔
F: (0)可是我覺得很怪耶..怎麼會爆炸<閩乎閩>
M: …(0.5)他那個是..不知道是怎麼樣就是
F: (0)壓力嗎還是什麼
In example (6), the female speaker shifts from low density words (pragmatic particles such as “耶” and “乎”) to a syntactic particle “嗎,” which has semantic denotation thus is considered as high semantic density word.
2. Formality of words
In this study, it is hypothesized that lexical formality is also applicable to manifest frame. When a lexical item’s semantic referential meaning is partially or completely subtracted, that lexical item is usually taken as less formal. In this study, formality of lexical items is divided into low formality and high formality. Since formality is influenced by contextual factors, such as topics and types of speech activity, it is presumed that shifting of word formality entails the existence of context of communication and its components. For instance, in professional talk, the situational formality is relatively higher, and the formality of words, as a reflection of the context, is also high; and vice versa.
In addition, it is proposed that linguistic features which distinguish formality of words include ellipsis, pro-form, pragmatic particle, discourse marker, vernacular, technical
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term & jargon, syntactic particle, and archaic form (as opposition to vernacular). All these features are defined and illustrated below. Examples (7) to (11) are instances for SV form high formality to low formality; examples (12) to (14) are illustrations for SV in opposite direction.
a. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is one of the linguistic features which indicates low formality. Ellipsis includes abbreviation, blending, and acronym. In this study, only abbreviation and blending are found in the data. Example (7) is an illustration of ellipsis.
(7)
In example (7), speaker M2 shifts from jargons such as “研究所,” “國家考試,”
and “練筆” (which are taken as high formality words) to “上” as an abbreviation of
“考上,” which is considered as low formality word.
b. Pro-form
Pro-form, without semantic referential meaning, is more likely to be regarded as feature of low formality. Example (8) illustrates this point.
(8)
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In example (8), the female speaker shifts from high formality word (jargon such as “全球經濟體系”) to pro-form “他們,” the semantic meaning of which is subtracted and, thus, considered as low formality word.
c. Pragmatic particle
Pragmatic particle, a word with pragmatic meaning but without semantic meaning, is also considered as a word of low formality. Example (9) is an illustration.
(9)
M2: ...(1.4)可我覺得台大心理跟我..唸心輔..其實原來好像不太一樣 M1: ... (0.4) 大學部的東西..我覺得..不知道
M2: ..(TSK)我覺得還是差滿多的耶..台大的很...(0.5)很...(0.6)很
In example (9), M2 speaker shifts from high formality words (jargons such as
“台大心理” and “心輔”) to pragmatic particle such as “耶,” which is pragmatically functional but semantically not functional, and, thus, considered as low formality word.
d. Discourse marker
Discourse marker, like pragmatic particle, which serves discourse function but carries no semantic meaning, is regarded as word of low formality. Example (10) is the illustration of discourse marker.
(10)
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In example (10), the female speaker shifts from high density jargon such as “全球 暖化” and “二氧化碳排放量” to a discourse marker “對,” which is used as a form to regulate the communication process. It is thus considered as a low semantic density word.
e. Vernacular
According to Labov (1972), vernacular is the style that people take the least attention to the monitoring of speech; it is a person’s “most basic style.” Vernacular words include slang, cursing word, and casual expression, all of which are taken as words of low formality. In example (11), shifting to vernacular words is illustrated.
(11)
In example (11), the speaker shifts from high formality lexical items (jargons such as “因應,” “全球暖化,” and “二氧化碳排放量”) to vernacular form such as “搞不好,”
which is considered as low formality word. In addition, the speaker uses nick name “龍井 茶” to refer to a person in her speaking, which is used in informal context only.
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f. Technical term & jargon
Using technical term & jargon, which are usually used in more formal setting, are more likely to be regarded as words of high formality. Example (12) is an illustration.
(12)
可是這也很好笑..他們如果現在就是短視近利的話..其實未來..那什麼…
如果到時候海平面上升的話..其實先淹的一定是沿海城市..可是很多國家
都是靠沿海城市在發展經濟..然後到時候全球經濟體系也會變
In example (12), the speaker shifts from fragmental expression of low formality (such as “先淹的”) to jargon “全球經濟體系,” which is considered as high formality word.
g. Syntactic particle
The use of syntactic particle is considered as a feature of high formality.
Example (13) provides an illustration.
(13)
M1: ..(0.5)你說那個..這樣子...(1.8)是喔...(1.7)為甚麼 M2: ...(1.6)我覺得..那個需要有錢又有閒
M1: ...(1.2)那你不覺得非洲是更好的選擇嗎
In example (13), speaker M1 shifts from low formality expressions (such as pro-form “那個” and “這樣子”) to a syntactic particle “嗎” to denote an interrogative of the propositional content, which is, thus, considered as high formality word.
h. Archaic form
Contrary to vernacular word, archaic form is either formal or less formal, but never casual. Therefore, it is more likely to be regarded as high formality. Example (14) describes this point.
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(14)
M2: ..應該是說..你可以在那一邊做幾個...(0.9)打工然後你又可以玩啊 M1: ...(2.2)可能吧..我覺得..因為..那時候電視新聞就在講..啊..學英文學英
文..這樣子可以..免費學英文..怎麼樣怎麼樣..那然後我就覺得那根本就 是狗屁..根本就是去那裡當廉價勞工
M2: ...(1.4)我覺得那應該是說..體驗另外一種生活還比較實在..我 覺得學英文反而是其次
In example (14), speaker M2 shifts from low formality words (pragmatic particle such as “啊”) to archaic form such as “其次,” which is considered as high formality word.
3. Word frequency
Since word frequency is congruent with contextual factors (such as situational formality, types of speech act, and referential focus), shifting of word frequency, whether from high to low or from low to high, implies the existence of communicative context, which is a part of the concept of communication. In this study, word frequency is divided into low frequency, mid frequency, and high frequency.
Owing to there is no word frequency corpus for spoken Mandarin, the word frequency in this study is based on Academia Sinica Corpus.
Examples (15) to (17) illustrate shifting to low frequency, mid frequency, and high frequency words respectively.
(15)
ei 可是我覺得…(0.8)那個末日…(0.3)就是那種..末世預言那種傳說..就
是很奇怪..他們…(0.5)這個像是這個是很有根據..可是他們那個只是好像單 純預言就說是..是世界末日這樣子
In example (15), the speaker shifts from high frequency word “覺得 (word frequency of 4437)” to low frequency word “根據 (word frequency of 52).”
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(16)
累..可是他們至少錢..eh..其他人累才沒像他們那麼多錢啊..我覺得其
他人累的程度..不比他們差…(1.0)其他人累的程度一樣
In example (16), the speaker code-switches from high frequency word “覺得 (word frequency of 4437)” to mid frequency word “程度 (word frequency of 913).”
(17)
對..因為那個南極那邊就有很多那種…(0.7)就是可..啊..火山…(0.4)想起來 了..對..就是那種…(2.5)就是他說…(0.9)如果說你冰層溶解的話..然後好 像…(0.8)連帶的就會..影響到版塊的活動..然後南極那邊..就是火山活動頻 繁的話..又會連帶影響到世界各地的那個板塊帶..所以那個最近印尼才會那
個頻繁的發生地震…(1.2)對啊.. 然後其實我覺得台灣好像…(0.9)不知道..
不一定是那種很強的..地震..可是就是那種地震的次數好像有在增加
In example (17), the speaker shifts from low frequency word “南極 (word frequency of 15)” to high frequency word “覺得 (word frequency of 4437).”
3.3.1.2. Syntactic Level
On syntactic level, SVF is classified according to three linguistic features of the target sentence, including sentence complexity, sentence completeness, and sentence patterns. These features are illustrated below.
1. Sentence complexity
Shifting of sentence complexity is divided into two categories, namely, shifting to simple sentence and shifting to complex sentence. Usually the greater the syntactic complexity of a sentence is, the higher the formality of that sentence is and more likely that it is used in more formal setting. However, the lower the syntactic complexity of a sentence is, the less likely that sentence is used in a non-casual situation.
a. Shifting to simple sentence
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In example (18), the male speaker shifts from complex sentence to a simple sentence, which implies the shifting of formality from high to low.
b. Shifting to complex sentence
Examples (19) to (21) are illustrations of complex sentences which include embedding, coordinate, and subordinate sentence.
(19)
..然後他就出來啊…就…(0.7)他們好像還拿了一張紙…(0.7)就是
我猜他們應該是有什麼系統吧
In example (19), the speaker shifts from simple sentence to an embedding sentence when the speaker tries to make some prediction seriously.
(20)
In example (20), M1 speaker shifts from fragment to a coordinate sentence.
(21)
...(1.6)還不錯啊..摩斯打工…(1.7)打到正職..就至少比沒工作好啊
...(1.6)還不錯啊..摩斯打工…(1.7)打到正職..就至少比沒工作好啊