One of the most often quoted cultural theorists is Geert Hofstede, a Dutch cultural anthropologist. From 1978 to 1983, he conducted a landmark cultural study of hundreds of IBM employees in 53 countries. He identified four primary dimensions of cultural difference: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity. These four dimensions of culture analyze how patterns of acting, feeling and thinking are often ingrained in people and the differences in these cultural patterns are displayed in the choice of symbols, rituals and values. The dimensions represent separate but interdependent continua along which culturally influenced attitudes of both nations and individuals can be assessed concerning such important issues such as authority, emotional display, and the appropriate roles of individuals in family, society, and it the interest of this study, school. The dimensions are measured by indices and rankings.
Power distance
Power distance (PD) refers to how much less powerful members depend on more powerful members of the group. In large power distance countries, like China, the dependence of subordinates on supervisors is considerable. Hofstede claims that large PD countries tend to have centralized political power and exhibit tall hierarchies in organizations. Subordinates are expected to be obedient to supervisors and do as they are told. Statistics show that large PD countries tend to have larger populations. In small power distance countries, like the United States, subordinates depend less on authority, and there is a strong indication of interdependence relationship. Subordinates and supervisors are closer together and are more interchangeable. The hierarchical structure is flatter, with less difference in status. The Power Distance Index (PDI) is the measurement of how comfortable the people of a culture are with unequal distribution of authority and power in society. A high PDI index indicates a culture that is more comfortable with unequal power distribution, while a low PDI indicates a culture that is less comfortable with unequal power distribution.
Individualism vs. collectivism
Collectivism deems that people are integrated into strong groups that protect them in exchange for loyalty. At work, collectivist cultures, this is dominant in China, value training, physical conditions, skills, and the intrinsic rewards of mastery. Hofstede found out that such societies and governments place collective social-economic interests over the individual, and profess the ideologies of harmony, consensus, and equality. On the other hand, individualism in a country reflects a person’s strong sense of self.
Individualistic cultures, represented by the United States in this study, value personal time, freedom, challenge, and extrinsic motivators such as material rewards at work.
Their societies and governments place individual social-economic interests over the group, and profess the ideologies of self-actualization, self-realization, self-government, and freedom. The Individualism index (IDV) is a measurement of a culture’s tendency toward either closely-knit group integration or a loose association of individuals. A low IDV index indicates a culture that is more collectivist, while a high IDV index indicates a culture that is more individualist.
Masculinity vs. femininity
In Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, femininity and masculinity are defined as gender roles, not physical characteristics. He maintains traditional views of gender differences, in which feminine roles are oriented to home, children, people, and tenderness, and masculine roles to assertiveness, competition, and toughness. In terms of work, although different professions are dominated by different genders, high-femininity cultures, like those of China, tend to blur the lines between gender roles, while high-masculinity cultures, like those of the United States, display traditional distinctions.
Consequently, femininity cultures put emphasis on values like good relations with supervisors, peers, and subordinates, good living and working environments, and the sense of security in employment, while masculinity cultures focus on goals like earnings, recognition, advancement, and challenges. The Masculine (MAS) Index measures where a culture lies in a spectrum where masculinity is at one end and femininity at the other. A high MAS Index indicates a very masculine culture and a low MAS Index indicates a
37 more feminine culture. Feminine cultures are more modest and caring overall, while masculine cultures are more aggressive and assertive.
Uncertainty avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance reflects the extent to which a society attempts to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. Uncertainty Avoidance defines the extent to which people are made nervous by situations which they perceive as unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable. These are situations that they try to avoid by maintaining strict codes of behavior and a belief in absolute truth. Therefore it refers to the amount an individual is willing to invest to maximize the probability of obtaining a desired outcome or to reduce unexpected events. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) is a measure of a society’s tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty. Cultures that scored high in uncertainty avoidance prefer rules (e.g. about religion and food) and structured circumstances and are very uncomfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty and thus seek out structure, stability and certainty to satisfy the need to eliminate such feelings. Cultures with a low UAI are comfortable with few rules, little structure, risk takers, differing opinions, tolerant of viewpoints and behavior different from their own, and the like.
Research focus using Hofstede’s dimensions
The table below gives an overview of the researcher’s use of Hofstede’s dimensions in relation to the international higher education and how the international student function in respect to power distance, individualism, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance while studying in Taiwan. The society or culture from which a student is from is often visible in their classroom behavior. Consequently, all international students, with the exception of those from Asian countries that share homogenous aspects of their culture with Taiwan, come to Taiwan and will encounter a culture totally new and unfamiliar to them. According to Hofstede (1984) Taiwan has a large power distance and low individualism, and strong uncertainty avoidance and feminine culture. This is the challenge of the foreign students that the research is focusing on that may affect their satisfaction and hence affect their academic performance.
Table 2.3. Hofstede’s (2002) descriptions of expected behaviors as a function of cultural value scores and environment
Small Power Distance Societies Large Power Distance Societies In the Family
1. Children encouraged to have a will of their own
2. Parents treated as equals
1. Children educated towards obedience to parents
2. Parents treated as superiors At School
1. Student-centered education (student initiative)
2. Learning represents impersonal ‘truth’
1. Teacher-centered education (order) 2. Learning represents personal ‘wisdom’
from teacher (expert, guru) At Work Place
1. Hierarchy means an inequality of roles, established for convenience
2. Subordinates expect to be consulted 3. Ideal boss is resourceful democrat
1. Hierarchy means existential inequality 2. Subordinates expect to be told what to do
3. Ideal boss is benevolent autocrat (good father)
Collectivist Societies Individualistic Societies In the Family
1.Education towards ‘we’ consciousness 2.Opinions pre-determined by group 3.Obligations to family or in-group:
- Harmony 1.Formal learning is for the young only
2.Learn how to do 1.Education be lifelong
2.Learn how to learn At Work Place
1.Value standard different for in-group and out-group: particularism
2.Other people are seen as members of their group
3.Relationship prevails over task 4.Moral model of employer-employee relationship
1.Same values standards apply to all:
universalism
2.Other people seen as potential resources 3.Task prevails over relationship
4.Calculative model of employer-employee relationship
39 Table 2.3. (Continued)
Feminine Societies Masculine Societies
In the Family 1. Stress on relationship
2. Solidarity
3. Resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation
1. Stress on achievement 2. Compensation
3. Resolution of conflicts by fighting them out
At School 1. Average student is norm
2. System rewards student’s social adaptation
3. Student’s failure at school is relatively minor accident
1. Best students are norm
2. System rewards student’s academic performance
3. Student’s failure at school is disaster, may lead to suicide
At Work Place 1. Assertiveness ridiculed
2. Undersell yourself 3. Stress on life quality 4. Intuition
1. Assertiveness appreciated 2. Oversell yourself
3. Stress on careers 4. Decisiveness
Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Societies Strong Uncertainty Avoidance Societies In the Family
1. What is different is ridiculous or curious 2. Ease, indolence, low stress
3. Aggression and emotions not shown
1. What is different is dangerous 2. Higher anxiety and stress
3. Showing of aggression and emotions accepted
At School 1. Students comfortable with:
- Unstructured learning situations - Vague objectives
- Broad assignments - No timetables
2. Teachers may say “I don’t know”
1. Students comfortable with:
- Structured learning situations - Precise objectives
- Detailed assignments - Strict timetables
2. Teachers should have all the answers At Work Place
1. Dislike of rules, written or unwritten
2. Less formalization and standardization 1. Emotional need for rules, written or unwritten
2. More formalization and standardization Source: Adapted from Romie F. Littrell Learning styles of students in and from Confucian
cultures
If international students have perceptions of inequality, it can lead to reticence of students to interact with lecturer. Less interaction will be a result of large power distance and more interaction signifies small power distance. The lecturer and locals will accept less interaction since Taiwan has large power distance index. Since they are in a new society a new cultural milieu, their reaction to the unfamiliar can influence their openness to new ideas and new ways of doing things. If the international student fights, he will display strong uncertainty avoidance; if there is tolerance of this unknown, then a display of weak uncertainty avoidance is observed. Although this is more personal, coming from a society that has strong uncertainty avoidance can create problems for foreign students in Taiwan. When the international students want to socialize, the relation with in-group can affect their perception as an insider or outsider, and determine attitudes toward assisting other international students. So, a loose relationship will mean individualism while a tight relationship displays collectivism. This can also be seen in the lecturers’ treatment of the international student who are either considered as individualistic or collectivist in their behavior. The lecturer’s perception will be inclined as either an insider being in the in-group or an outsider. Emotional gender roles might affect attitudes toward male and female lecturers and fellow students. Taiwan is feministic and would prefer the same cultural values; anything else is different and considered masculine and may be a threat.
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