國際高等教育:國際學生在臺學習成就滿意度之研究

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(1)CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Chapter Overview This introductory chapter gives the audience an insight of the study.. The. background of the study, the problem statement, the purposes of the research, the research questions, the hypotheses, and the significance of the study, the delimitations and limitations, and finally a definition of the terms are all addressed, in order to introduce a thorough and comprehensive focus by the researcher.. Background of the Study The internationalization of higher education is being adopted more and more by many nations. Their pursuit of the internationalization of higher education is for various reasons. Since World War II more nations view having students learn each others’ cultures as a means of creating world peace. Others hold that to function well in a global environment everyone needs to collaborate as ‘Golden Citizens’ in a world where we all share similar problems. Moreover, with the move toward globalization, countries need to be more similar and competent, yet competitive on all levels. In particular, developed and developing nations need to attract foreign students to ensure credibility in their educational institutions that will lead to further acceptance and belief in the professionals these institutions may produce. Also the need for citizens with professional qualifications, international experience, language proficiency and cross-cultural understanding is acknowledged by authorities and employers as well as by students. An estimated two million foreign students are studying worldwide. According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2005 report by UNESCOPRESS, out of every ten tertiary students studying abroad, five are Asians, three are Europeans, one is African and one is from another continent. Half of all foreign study takes place in Europe, one-quarter in the United States and one quarter in other nations. Even though the attraction of foreign students has been happening for over a century, especially in the United States, there have been many problems with the adaptation and adjustment of foreign students in the host countries. For decades researchers – from the USA and other regions interested in the issues foreign students face in their countries - have been investigating the student . 1.

(2) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. sojourners’ lives, the problems that face them, and the effects those problems may have on their academic performance. One of the most famous studies concerning foreign students was conducted by Lysgarrd (1955), who formulated his U-curve hypothesis that suggests that at the beginning of their academic life, students find adaptation easy, then experience a period of stress in adjusting that leads to depression and then finally a period of adjustment again, a process which forms the U-curve. This study by Lysgarrd identified the possibility of students experiencing different levels of stress and has stimulated other researchers to investigate the situation. Researchers such as Manese, Sedlacek, & Leong, (1988); Pedersen, (1991); Heikinheimo and Shute (1986); Wan, Chapman, and Biggs (1992); Suinn, Khoo, and Ahuana(1995) all have studied the topic of foreign students and the effects of studying abroad. Their researches suggest that the problem exists, it will continue to exist, if not addressed it can worsen, and once addressed it can be lessened. A number of factors have been identified in these studies which include: increased prevalence of loneliness, depression and other mental health problems, slower academic progress than host nationals, difficulties communicating, adjusting to major differences in the educational system; physical illness, and cultural disputes with host nationals, and in some cases discrimination. These factors can have a negative effect on international students’ relationships with their teachers, peers, and advisors. This in turn diminishes the students’ psychological stability, which is very necessary for a student to perform well academically. Consequently, there is a need for more research on this topic especially for developing nations that have policies to attract foreign students and nations such as Taiwan that have now included international higher education in their development.. 2.

(3) Statement of the Problem One of the most significant studies was done by Akpan-Iquot (1980), who suggests that students from different world regions have different perceptions of the adaptation problems. A number of research studies have been conducted that not only have drawn the same conclusion but have also noted that the problem still exists although there have been slight improvements. Despite this conclusion, Taiwan like many other nations still has internationalized its higher education and international students in Taiwan face the same types of problems that international students face elsewhere. The student soon finds that living in a new culture presents many challenges. Often the challenges are interesting and fun at first‚ but over time having to adjust to so many new things can be exhausting. The newly arrived foreign student faces the challenges of adjusting and adapting to the host country’s culture and its academic system. This can be exciting but transitions can be especially challenging and very difficult. The student may face problems such as: missing home; difficulties communicating in a foreign language in and out of class; adjusting to major differences in the educational system; difficult problems getting help for physical illness due to differences in the medical system; dealing with others’ misperceptions about his or her culture or country. Dealing with these issues can result in the foreign students feeling sad, worried, lonely, confused, frustrated or angry, or overwhelmed, and facing a lack of confidence. These emotions may affect their academic performance. Many countries try to lessen these problems but never totally eradicate them. The problem lies in the fact that the internationalization of education must be achieved not simply or solely by giving the student the opportunity to cross physical borders, but by providing the necessary tools – whatever those may be – to ensure that both students and teachers learn to work and study in an academic environment that is diverse from an international point of view. An easy but maybe costly solution would be for host countries, while attracting foreign students, to sensitize the potential students to their culture. This is hardly the approach taken at present; as a result there are many cultural complications to the foreign student in cultural settings totally oblivious to them. Still yet, many higher education institutions in Taiwan are attracting more and more foreign students through exchange programs, government scholarships, private . 3.

(4) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. scholarships, assistanceships, and many students come on their own will after being attracted to Taiwan’s education offerings. These students come from all over the world with many expectations and diverse cultural backgrounds and are all non-speakers of mandarin or have little exposure to it. As a result, definitely issues will arise that may have the international students experience dissatisfaction - primarily with communication because of ignorance of Taiwan’s language and also with their conditions because of Taiwan’s culture, and this dissatisfaction can further affect their studies. To add to this there no empirical research has been done on this topic in Taiwan that can assist the parties directly involved. As a result, this researcher pursued this area to provide meaningful information to foreign students, their home support, the host schools in Taiwan, and especially the Taiwanese government. After all, according to the Ministry of Education of Taiwan, the training of individuals in higher education is the key to Taiwan’s survival and internationalization. Failure to cope with international competition and demand for academic innovation and consolidation will lead to loss of academic advantage to neighboring Asian nations, and the loss of the opportunity to pursue further excellence will result in Taiwan’s lagging behind in this international competitive trend. This training can only be fully effective if Taiwan can identify and solve any problem that may hinder its progress.. 4.

(5) Purposes of the Study There are underlying anxieties associated with sending students abroad. Issues from personal safety to finances are of concern to countries that export and import international students. Therefore, the costs involved in educating students abroad are high not only financially, especially because the travel involved generally makes international study not self-supporting but also academically; if the students do not adapt or are dissatisfied their academic performance is hindered. To assist Taiwan and all the parties involved especially the foreign students, the following purposes below were devised. The purposes of this study are: 1. To examine the level of satisfaction of foreign students (sojourners) in Taiwan. 2. To investigate and analyze how the variables for factors (Power Distance, Individualism, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Masculinity as defined by the researcher) may have contributed to foreign students’ academic performance while studying in Taiwan. 3. To study the effect the demographic data (age, gender, and nationality) has on students’ academic performance. 4. To provide suggestions to the host institutions, students, and countries of origin on how to assist foreign students while studying in Taiwan.. . 5.

(6) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. Questions and Hypotheses of the Study 1. Are foreign students satisfied with studying in Taiwan? Hypothesis 1: Ho: Foreign students are not satisfied studying in Taiwan. Ha: Foreign students are satisfied studying in Taiwan. 2. What influences do the dimensions (Power Distance, Individualism, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Masculinity as defined by the researcher) have on foreign students’ performance? Hypothesis 2: y = performance and x = power distance Ho: There is no relationship between Power Distance and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between Power Distance and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0 Hypothesis 3: y = performance and x = individualism Ho: There is no relationship between Individualism and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between Individualism and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0 Hypothesis 4: y = performance and x = uncertainty avoidance Ho: There is no relationship between Uncertainty Avoidance and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between Uncertainty Avoidance and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0 Hypothesis 5: y = performance and x = masculinity Ho: There is no relationship between Masculinity and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between Masculinity and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0 6.

(7) 3. Do the demographic factors (age, gender, nationality), students degree pursued (undergraduate, graduate) and students status (ICDF, Non-ICDF) affect students’ performance? Hypothesis 6: y = performance and x = age Ho: There is no relationship between age of students and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between age of students and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0 Hypothesis 7: y = performance and x = gender Ho: There is no relationship between gender of students and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between gender of students and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0 Hypothesis 8: y = performance and x = nationality Ho: There is no relationship between nationality of students and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between nationality of students and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0 Hypothesis 9: y = performance and x = status Ho: There is no relationship between status of students and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between status of students and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0. . 7.

(8) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. Hypothesis 10: y = performance and x = degree Ho: There is no relationship between degree of students and students’ performance. Ho: βyx = 0 Ha: There is a relationship between degree of students and students’ performance. Ha: βyx ≠ 0. 4. Does performance of ICDF and Non-ICDF scholarship students differ? Hypothesis 11: µICDF = ICDF scholarship students’ performance and µNon ICDF = non-ICDF scholarship students’ performance. Ho: There is no significant difference between ICDF and Non-ICDF students’ performance. Ho: µ ICDF = µNon-ICDF Ha: There is a significant difference between ICDF and Non-ICDF students’ performance. Ha: µ ICDF ≠ µNon-ICDF. 5. Does performance of graduates and undergraduates students differ? Hypothesis 12: µGrad = Graduate students’ performance and µUnderGrad = Under Graduate students’ performance. Ho: There is no significant difference between Grad and UnderGrad students’ performance. Ho: µGrad = µUnderGrad Ha: There is a significant difference between Grad and UnderGrad students’ performance. Ha: Grad ≠ µUnderGrad. 8.

(9) Significance of the Study The internationalizing of higher education is not an easy project for any nation. It comes with problems, both financial and cultural, and some more major than others. But while most of the problems can be solved financially there are those like students’ emotions and cultural encounters that have to be addressed more carefully and with much intervention. Universities have a great challenge as to how to accommodate culturally diverse student populations. A developed country like the US for decades has been battling with this problem and has yet to find amicable solutions for all the parties involved especially the students. Europe is attracting the most foreign students and likewise shares the same fate. Asia, particularly Japan and China, is attracting ever more foreign students, and while there is not much existing literature on their encounters, the few that exist highlight students’ problems in adjusting to their host countries. Therefore the goal of this study is to identify and improve those areas of adjustment and adaptation that affect students’ study habits and academic performance in Taiwan. Little is known about the adjustment problems or stresses that international students experience in Taiwan. This quantitative study provides statistical data that is greatly significant to the foreign students and to the Taiwanese government and educational institutions. As a result, the findings of this study may: assist scholarship organizations with valuable literature on what measures could be taken when attracting foreign students; assist scholarship programs to locate the problems that already exist and develop solutions; identify for the higher education institutions the problems foreign students may face and enable them to implement the necessary mechanisms and interventions to make better the life of student sojourners; pinpoint to present and future foreign students in Taiwan what problems exist that they need to be cognizant of and what measures they can take to combat them; provide meaningful literature to the Taiwan government that will assist its future plans to internationalize higher education in Taiwan. Also of significance is that this study is done at the early stage of Taiwan’s attraction of foreign students and hopefully this study becomes a pioneer that will encourage more empirical studies on the topic.. . 9.

(10) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. Delimitations and Limitations Delimitations There are several delimitations placed on the study by the researcher. It is delimited to Taiwan and not generalized to other regions especially of Asian decent, especially China. Also the study is delimited to higher educational institutions in Taiwan and was not generalized to all international students which includes elementary and high school students. Another delimitation is the researcher’s definitions of Hofstede’s four dimensions theory relevant to the items on the questionnaire, and the effect of these dimensions on students’ academic performance. Hofetede’s dimensions were used instead of variables in the SACQ because the researcher is interested on the nature of students’ cultural adaptation and adjustment as satisfaction items. This research is delimited to the demographic data of age, gender and nationality and ICDF/Non-ICDF scholarship recipients. The researcher chooses not to use other demographic data because the interest is in age and gender determining factors, and specifically nationality to see if there are differences depending on students’ country of origin. The researcher chooses ICDF scholarship recipients specifically because there is a set figure of ICDF students and those students can snowball other samples for the researcher to reach his population sample. This research is also delimited to higher education foreign students who have spent one or more years studying in Taiwan. This is because the students needed to have spent some time in Taiwan of which a year or more is feasible and they have already had academic GPA’s, and higher education students’ adaptation is a world wide issue as opposed to other levels. Finally the research is delimited to international students who take classes in English. There are more international students who take courses in Chinese.. 10.

(11) Limitations Another limitation is only instrument of a questionnaire developed by the researcher and piloted with only 10 students. For the purpose of a thesis and given the time frame and budget this questionnaire was used and only this sample for the pilot. The data to be obtained shows students’ satisfaction on their performance. Finally, the data was not generalized with findings from other researchers for other nations but the results were compared to see if there are similarities. The data can be used as additional support to the issues foreign students may face. After the sample population was obtained, the research became limited to a higher amount of the students coming from Latin America and the Caribbean. These students were more accessible being ICDF students and because they take classes in English. And, there is a disproportionate amount of students from other regions studying in Taiwan. The sampling also created a limitation of more male than female respondents. It appears that there are more male international students taking English courses than female. Only 40% of the students responded in the comments section of the questionnaire which limited the researcher to report what was given and make generalizations from those comments. Likewise the use of multiple regression limited the results to be answered from one big table. The independent factors represented by Hofstede’s dimensions were not looked at individually. The researcher was more interested to see how all the factors which consist of the 35 questions as separate variables, and the demographic variables impact students’ GPA.. . 11.

(12) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. Definition of Terms Academic Performance is students’ scholarly performance that refers to their academic average as required and/or stipulated by the institution. Acculturation is changes that occur as a result of first-hand contact between individuals of differing cultural origins. First hand contact with a new culture leads people from different cultures to modify their behaviors, emotions, and cognition. It is also defined as a way in which members of a minority group adopt cultural patterns from the host society and extend the patterns into other parts of their lives. Adaptation is moving from one culture to another culture, usually (but not always) learning the rules, norms, customs, and language of the new culture. Adjustment When an individual leaves his or her own culture and goes into another, s/he naturally carries his/her own background of experience, sometimes called "cultural baggage." People' s reactions to the new culture, and how well they adjust to living in it, are often a reflection of their own background and expectations. Culture can be seen as the way of life of a group which includes all the learned and standardized forms of behavior that are used and recognized within that group. Culture consists of learned ways of acting, feeling and thinking, rather than biologically determined ways. Culture is acquired by people because it consists of learned patterns of behavior rather than the biologically determined ones that are sometimes called instinctive. The British anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." Tylor' s definition includes three of the most important characteristics of culture: (1) Culture is acquired by people. (2) A person acquires culture as a member of society. (3) Culture is a complex whole. Culture is a complex whole that social scientists can break down into simple units called ' cultural traits.'A trait may be a custom, such as burial of the dead; a device, such as a plow; a gesture, such as a handshake; or an idea, such as democracy.. 12.

(13) Cultural Competence is a term used to describe a set of behaviors, attitudes and policies within a system, agency or among professionals that enables them to work effectively in cross-cultural situations. Foreign Students are students usually in early adulthood, who study in foreign schools. Although some travel abroad solely to improve their language, others travel to advance their specialized studies; still others study abroad because suitable tertiary education are in short supply or are unavailable altogether in their home countries. In addition, in many parts of the world, a foreign degree, especially if earned from certain countries, is considered much more prestigious than a local one. (Wikipedia) Globalization is the flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values, ideas etc. cross borders. Globalization affects each country in a different way due to a nation’s individual history, traditions, culture and priorities. Higher Education is any of various types of education given in postsecondary institutions of learning and usually affording, at the end of a course of study, a named degree, diploma, or certificate of higher studies. Higher-educational institutions include not only universities and colleges but also various professional schools that provide preparation in such fields as law, theology, and the like. International Cooperation and Development Fund or ICDF was formed in 1996 and is now the principal body overseeing Taiwan' s cooperative overseas development programs. The Taiwan ICDF' s purpose is to strengthen international cooperation and enhance foreign relations by promoting economic development, social progress and the welfare of the people in partner nations around the world. The Taiwan ICDF primarily assists its allies in Central and South America, the East Caribbean, Africa and the Asia Pacific region, but the organization has also worked in Europe and formulates panregional assistance programs where possible. The Taiwan ICDF enthusiastically cooperates with other international development agencies, as well as foreign governments, financial institutions, non-government organizations and diverse businesses. The Taiwan ICDF' s core competencies include technical assistance, investment and lending . 13.

(14) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. operations, education and training, and humanitarian assistance. Taiwan ICDF education and training programs, often developed in conjunction with government agencies, nongovernment organizations and educational institutions, have developed human resources in nations around the world. Higher education, which plays an important role in the economic development of every country, is one of the core priorities in the Taiwan ICDF undergraduate, graduate and Ph.D. graduate programs that have been developed at 13 renowned local universities. International Higher Education implies the entire process of social life by means of which individuals and social groups learn to develop consciously within, and for the benefit of, the national and international communities, the whole of their personal capacities, attitudes, aptitudes and knowledge. That education should comprise civic training and learning activities for all students that will sharpen their knowledge of the major problems which they should help to solve, provide them with possibilities for direct and continuous action aimed at the solution of those problems, and improve their sense of international co-operation. (UNESCO) Internationalization of Higher Education is undoubtedly the most pressing challenge to the education sectors of both developed and developing countries. The process of higher education internationalization is difficult because the higher education systems were originally created by national governments and most countries still operate regulatory or legal constraints on various educational issues. According to Wu (2002), the internationalization of high education essentially aims to respect the common laws of education while maintaining individual national cultures, because education is never simply to teach knowledge and develop skills, but to inherit culture and to forge personality as well. Student Satisfaction is the state felt by a person who has experienced a performance (or outcome) that has fulfilled his or her expectations. Satisfaction is thus a function of relative levels of expectation and perceived performance.. 14.

(15) CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter Overview This chapter provides a deep and rich review of relevant literature that assists the researcher to address the issue effect of the foreign students’ satisfaction on their study motivation. At first it provides an insight about the internalization of higher education throughout the world. Then it explores Taiwan’s move into internationalizing higher education. The chapter continues by focusing on Taiwan’s internationalization of higher education and its correlation with their culture. The chapter then provides other researchers’ findings about problems of adaptation and adjustment that foreign students face throughout the world. Then the chapter discusses Geert Hofstede’s four dimensions and how they relate to education and culture. Finally the chapter addresses theories of acculturation and adaptation related to the researcher’s direction.. Internationalization of Higher Education The internationalization of higher education is becoming a necessity throughout the world. The basic development of the country’s knowledge system through intercultural interactions appears to be the driving force but in fact because of the move towards globalization, many countries, both developed and developing, are in reality being pressured to open their education systems to a growing number of students. In response many governments have launched higher education institution policies to accommodate the foreign students to their country. In a sense, knowledge becomes a commodity to be produced and consumed as countries both attract foreign higher education students and send their own nationals abroad in the interest of internationalizing their education. There are various reasons why nations internationalize. Knight (1999) from his research draws four sets of rationales for internationalizing higher education, namely political, economic, academic, and social rationales. The political rational is that developing countries need to strengthen their national identities due to the strong influence of global economies, technologies, and communication caused by globalization. The economic rationale is that admitting international students and exporting educational . 15.

(16) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. services and products bring in additional funds and obtain a workforce with international competencies. The academic rational is seen when education sectors achieve international academic standards for teaching, research, and service. The social rationales are when internationalization is mostly focused on the preservation and promotion of national/ethnic culture. Yet different countries have their own rationales for internationalizing higher education. As pointed out by Hser (2005) the most common reasons for the US to internationalize higher education are the interests of national security and world peace, and the needs to develop global citizenship and to facilitate global collaboration. Americans realized that just having basic knowledge of other countries’ cultures was insufficient and there is need for a deeper understanding. Also, with the many changes globally such as the revolution in technology, global changes in economy and politics, and scarcity of needed resources, collaboration and global citizenry are needed. Some countries, such as Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the US, internationalize education as a marketing strategy. Knight (2002) points out that internationalization of education is an ancillary of globalization as countries, especially developing ones, see it as profit based and see a commercial commodity in foreign student recruitment. However, there are nonprofit universities whose motivation for internationalization is not financial; instead, they wish to enhance research and knowledge capacity and to increase cultural understanding. These universities are true to education, seeking academic prestige rather than profits. Still other universities seek internationalization of higher education for educational and social benefits. These include acquiring new and cross-cultural knowledge and competencies, improving foreign language proficiency (especially in English), establishing international and professional networks, familiarization with other countries and cultures, etc. (Van Damme 2001). Indeed, the use of English in internationalizing education is becoming very essential, especially for the benefit of globalization. According to George A. Scott, director of the US Government Accountability Office, greater competition on the global market for expertise in various academic disciplines has prompted some countries to embrace instruction in English and encouraged other systems to expand their recruiting activities and incentives. There are many countries that are very committed to attracting. 16.

(17) international students and are now competing with the US for the best and the brightest. Germany offers over 400 courses in English that are geared toward international students. While most countries charge higher tuition to international students, Japan offers the same subsidized tuition rates to international students as domestic students and offers more scholarship programs. Singapore offers all students, foreign and domestic, tuition grants covering up to 80 % of school expenses as long as the students agree to work in Singapore for three years after graduation. France has also strengthened and expanded its scholarship programs for international students. Also, some countries like Taiwan hope to increase their recruitment by providing scholarships to international students who may not be able to afford the costs of obtaining a higher education degree in the United States. The Taiwanese Scholarship and organizations such as Taiwan ICDF are two committed scholarship programs. Thus, the competition is fierce and the demand for internationalization of higher education standards is increasing and needs to be met. It is so fierce that while the US is the leading single country in attracting international students (although the percentage is decreasing), and has been doing so for over a hundred years, there are stronger and more aggressive regions/countries. Europe is probably the strongest region with the European Union’s ERASMUS program and the Bologna process. European Universities are even extending to Latin America, Asia, and Africa more rapidly than the US. Australia’s internationalization is growing as well with over 175,000 foreign students. Rubin (2007) gives us a look at Asian countries’ attraction of international students. Japan is the Asian country attracting the most international students with over 960,000. China attracts over 141,000 students and hopes to reach 300,000 by 2020. Korea has 22,600 international students. Taiwan has far to go with their new programs and an international higher education population just over 5,000 and estimated to reach13,000 by 2011 (Chang 2000).. . 17.

(18) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. Internationalization of Higher Education in Taiwan The government of Taiwan saw the need to reform higher education and started following the lifting of martial law in 1987. This process started with a review of the education system in the mid-1990s. Besides focusing on transforming the way the universities are funded, regulated and managed, the review especially focused on internationalizing higher education. After the review, the government was convinced to internationalize Taiwan’s higher education. To accomplish this it was important for their universities to establish links and academic exchanges with universities overseas. It was important to develop links so that the curriculum and pedagogies of the universities could be recognized worldwide. The socio-political environment of Taiwan had a lot to do with this education reform. Having become a more politically liberal and democratic society, Taiwan’s university academics were eager to establish links with the external world, while the government was very ardent to make the island more international. As a matter of fact the government urged Taiwan’s universities to establish programs and linkages with western universities (Weng 2001). Thus, the emphasis on the importance and significance of internationalization of education can be understood as strategies to make Taiwan less isolated within the international community and more independent of mainland China. In addition, the rapid expansion of private higher education in Taiwan has caused concern for improving and assuring the quality of higher education (Weng, 2001; Law, 2003 cited in Mok, 2003). In addition, a venture of the Taiwan Government was to introduce measures to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of higher education, particularly in terms of funding methodology, modes of provision and new management strategies (Tai, 2000; Weng, 2000; Mok, 2000b). To accomplish this, the state-education relationship has been redefined as the Taiwanese government introduced the policy of “privatization” in higher education. This policy prompted the private sector and other non-state sources to run education as a means to revitalize the education system. According to Law 2003) and Mok (2002), this movement will alleviate the pressure on the state to meet the demands for higher education.. 18.

(19) The rapid development of Taiwan’s economy and direct involvement of the government and private sectors have made the internationalization of higher education move at a quick pace and the attraction of international higher education students is growing by great percentages. Presently there are only 5,259 international higher education students in Taiwan pursing degrees. However, Taiwan is undergoing a number of changes and implementations to attract foreign students and raise their universities' international competitiveness. The universities are aggressively building a bilingual learning and living environment, constructing a campus information network, establishing an office to handle foreign student affairs, opening professional courses, providing foreign students with scholarships, and planning further education to raise students’ and the faculty' s foreign-language abilities (MOE Taiwan). Their belief is that the number of foreign students is not only a key indicator of a nation' s educational internationalization and competitiveness, but also the characteristic of the nation' s national appeal and international influence. Therefore, the more advanced the nation, the more foreign students it has and the more efforts it has made to attract foreign students. The figure below illustrates the consistent growth rate of Taiwan’s attraction of international students.. Figure 2.1. Foreign Students’ Growth Chart Source: Adapted From MOE Taiwan (2007) – Department of Higher Education . 19.

(20) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. Persistence is what drives Taiwan’s MOE to the internationalization of higher education meeting world standards. Two policies to ensure development are: the provision of more scholarships to foreign students studying in Taiwan; the encouragement of schools to offer more courses in English, develop competitive, characteristic curricula, and establish programs needed to conduct national development in order to attract foreign students. Taiwan now has 20 universities offering 123 degree programs taught in English. Since the implementation of these policies in 2003, the number of foreign students studying in Taiwan has increased by over 26% annually and the number is growing. Taiwan’s MOE vision is one day to have first-class universities (35 – 60) and top-level research centers (40 – 65) by 2009. Foreign students in Taiwan study subjects that fall into one of the following disciplines: science and technology, social sciences, business administration, humanities and arts, and others. Table 2.1. Categories of programs for foreign students Category Science and technology. Branch of learning Engineering, mathematics, computer science,. Percentage 30.62%. natural science, agriculture, forestry, fishery, and animal husbandry. Social sciences. Sociology, economics, psychology, mass. 25.19%. media Business Administration. Business administration, tourism and travel. 20.31%. Arts and Humanities. Arts and Humanities. 23.31%. Others. Police administration, physical education. 0.56%. Source: Adapted from MOE Taiwan (2006) Foreign students come to Taiwan from 122 nations across the world to pursue degrees. The majority are from Asian nations, accounting for 69.73% of all foreign. 20.

(21) students. The chart below illustrates the nations and the percentages of students they send to Taiwan. Table 2.2. Countries and percentages of students studying in Taiwan Nation. Percentage. Japan. 15.95%. South Korea. 13.81%. Malaysia. 13.31%. US. 12.09%. Vietnam. 5.64%. Indonesia. 4.42%. India. 3.76%. Thailand. 2.64%. Philippines. 0.61%. Russia. 0.46%. 112 Other nations. 27.32%. Source: Adapted from MOE Taiwan (2006). Of course, internationalization of higher education does not only entail foreign students coming to Taiwan. Sending students abroad is equally important in the development. Taiwan has presently over 500,000 students studying abroad mostly in the US. However, the focus of this thesis is internationalization in Taiwan only.. . 21.

(22) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. Internationalization and Culture in Taiwan Taiwan’s internationalization of higher education is more than just administration, curriculum with global standards, and program quality control. Taiwan realizes that its educational policy in internationalizing education has to take strongly into consideration the cultural and societal differences of locals and foreigners studying together. The students, both local and international, are forced to find a balance between their academic and cultural lives, a task that is quite difficult but not impossible given the Asian culture and practices. Coupled to this, are the diverse ethnic/racial backgrounds of international students. One classroom can have more than 10 different cultures – certainly a crucible for racial tension and cultural disputes. One major policy of the MOE Taiwan to ease the possible gravity of this situation is providing a friendly environment and convenience to foreign students. This includes creating a bilingual campus environment, employment of counselors for foreign students, solving problems with housing, etc. All this is part of their international cultural and educational exchange and cooperation program. However while all these measures are honorable and are in place, the culture of Taiwan can be a barrier. Taiwan’s culture is very distinctive. International students in Taiwan face changes in climate, geography, food, social customs, politics, and general lifestyles. It is normal to experience difficulty adjusting and adapting to the culture, values, and traditions of any country, but in Taiwan that difficulty is especially great. That is because Taiwan is still building a culture that is representative of its people, ‘A National Identity’ so to speak. Taiwan since the seventeenth century has been governed by China, Holland, Spain and France that have all contributed to the Taiwanese culture and thereby also hindered it from forming a true national identity. These various cultures have had an impact on present-day Taiwanese government, social issues, and cultural identity. June Teufel Dreyer of the University of Miami, Thomas B. Gold of the University of California, and Shelly Rigger of Davidson College all have different views on Taiwan’s quest for national identity but the fact remains is that there is a quest and it has its impact on Taiwanese citizens. They have, after all, been through a series of social, political, and economic changes.. 22.

(23) These changes can surely affect the foreign student’s adaptation in different ways. Firstly, according to Yueh-Ying Chen, in a study done using 292 Taiwanese students from two different schools in 1996, the students exhibited their ambivalence about national identity. 61% of them claimed themselves as Taiwanese, 35% as Chinese. On the other hand, 46% considered China as their motherland, while 67% saw Taiwan as their motherland. Although the study has its limitations, we see that Taiwanese youth are not overwhelmed with Taiwanese nationalism and still hold Chinese consciousness. This is a strong barrier being that the students are the “Xers” and “Nexters”, the future of Taiwan, and as a consequence, they may not be so tolerant of international cultures among them because it would mean democratically accepting and acculturating to other cultures. This acceptance and acculturation would mean more interference with their already distorted national identify. Secondly, since the lifting of martial law in 1987, many changes have occurred in Taiwan’s education reform. On a local perspective, a Taiwanese-centered education and culture system which started with Lee Teng-Hui and continued with Chen Shui-Bian focused on creating Taiwanese history, geography, literature and main language, Mandarin (Law, 2002). On an international perspective, as one of the goals of modern educational reform Taiwan’s educational curriculum added global citizenship, so as to foster students’ consciousness of the different cultures and traditions of the global community (Law, 2002). Yet there are problems with aspects of this reform both locally and globally. Wai-Chung Ho (2006) in his study on music education in Taiwan concluded that the local movement for school music education is limited by little support from higher education institutions for teacher training, a lack of available materials for teaching Taiwanese local music, and the insufficient integration of traditional Chinese and other global music. He believes that the lack of support of higher education institutions to promote both local and international music creates a gap in the cultural identity locally, nationally, and globally. Thirdly, Taiwan is a multilingual, multiethnic country, composed of four major ethnic groups: 1.7% are the aborigines who speak Austronesian languages; 12% are Hakka; 13% are mainlanders; and 73.3 % of Taiwan’s 22.7 million people are the Taiwanese who speak Southern Min. Undoubtedly, in Taiwan there is a diversity of . 23.

(24) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. ethnicities that have their own distinct cultural practices and all homogenously Asian. But Taiwan has never been exposed to international multi-ethnicity before, and with internationalization, the country is now seeing many different ethnic and racial differences, a multi-culture exposure, and coping with that exposure poses a challenge and in some cases a threat. The distinct local ethnic groups all have their personal battles with the Taiwan government to maintain their own ethnic language and culture. Students who defied authority and spoke Taiwanese (a dialect of southern Fujian, also known as Minnan), Hakka, or other aboriginal languages could be fined or subjected to other disciplinary punishment in favor of Mandarin, the “national language” (Yang, 2004, p.219). On one hand, the Taiwanese government is promoting “Nativiation” (bentuhua) which means the promotion of local languages. But additionally and most importantly to them speaking any other language other than mandarin is considered song – a Taiwanese word meaning “unrefined” or “uncultured”. Certainly these problems may carry over to foreign students who may not be accepted by these ethnic groups that are being coerced out of their cultural practices. The locals are overwhelmed by an accelerated pace of accepting new cultural changes and practices, and an exposure to a mélange of other cultures to learn and become accustomed to. Fourthly, Confucian philosophy and practices – no conclusion has been drawn on whether it is a religion or not – still govern most of Taiwanese everyday lives both educationally and socially. Confucius’ main philosophy is based on relationships, all with hierarchical patterns, that if properly pursued will lead to a harmonious institution and collegial behavior. Individualism is seen as an aberration. One must subsume one’s identity to the group one belongs to and not be individualistic, for the welfare of that group. A rational person is expected in a Confucius society not an individualistic one that deviates in social behavior. Members of that society should be very dispassionate and have objective loyalty because a person is part of a family and a community and not an autonomous entity as in many other cultures. This concept is embedded in Taiwan’s education. Different cultural expectations regarding what are accepted classroom behaviors dictate implicit rules regarding amount, frequency and content of speaking in classrooms. The Taiwanese culture guided by Confucian ethic implies that students listen, and only speak when spoken to so as not to. 24.

(25) disrupt the professor nor appear insolent by raising questions or giving opinions. Lee (2002) points out that it is not rare to see the absence of criticism of teachers'or seniors' claims or theories (between teachers and students, as well as between senior and junior faculty, students and junior faculty), and a closed organizational culture in higher education institutions in East Asia, especially Confucianism-influenced countries like Taiwan. Dominika Baran’s article corresponds with Lee. She concludes that despite the multiethnic and multilingual identity of Taiwan, Taiwanese retains low cultural prestige especially in education, whose rigid structures channel students into fixed career paths that reflect class divisions and language stereotypes. That is because the students are brainwashed into thinking success in the educational system demands proficiency in Mandarin, leading to the reproduction of ideologies which link Mandarin with cultural prestige. Likewise, the Confucian principles expect Taiwanese students and teachers to strive for perfectionism – mistakes may yield undesirable consequences - while other cultures accept mistakes and pitfalls as part of the learning process and are unavoidable and acceptable. The international student is caught between two cultures that dictate conflicting norms of proper classroom behavior. The governance of higher education institutions has also been affected by authoritative Confucian principles. Lee further comments that universities or colleges in Confucian-oriented countries maintain closed or vertical organization systems – as opposed to western and other regions’ democratically open organization culture. These systems would ignore an open organizational system that embraces internal and external communication networks. He concludes that this closed system of higher education administration is one of the main reasons why a number of East Asian universities are backward in globalization i.e. internationalizing their higher education. This in effect creates a homogenous organizational culture of the universities/colleges that will limit or restrict international students’ input and mobilization while in Taiwan.. Even the political systems of East Asian countries including Taiwan are to some extent influenced by Confucian ethics. There has to be patriarchal obedience toward the authority, strong political-ethical morality, and unconditional fidelity. The political system has two core concepts, authority and obedience (Lee, 2002). The incumbent president Chen Shui-Bian has brought much opposition to his political practices. In 2006. 25.

(26) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. 2007 there were strong protests by the people that brought military barricades and presence. International students in Taiwan at that time were caught in political tension that could have led to riots and possibly bloodshed. History shows such a chaotic consequence is common when the people of a nation feel oppressed by their government. Finally, there are practices in Taiwan’s everyday culture (religious practices, holidays, small-group behavior, public behavior, leisure pursuits, aural and physical space, etc.) that can make adaptation and adjustment very challenging to foreign students. Every country has its own distinct religious practices that are accepted as part of their culture. But in Taiwan when those practices includes burning paper on the public walkway, with fire very visible, it is somewhat of a threat given the congested sidewalks and buildings. It is an accident waiting to happen. Likewise each country has its own holidays and while the many holidays in Taiwan are acceptable, universal holidays like Christmas are not celebrated and students have to attend classes on that day. Speaking loudly, talking on the cell phone on busses or trains, laughing loudly or any show of affection are all small group or public behaviors that are considered rude and unmannerly. Yet, in Taiwan during festivals and even on a daily basis you will hear firecrackers celebrating something, blaring loudspeakers touting some product, even the garbage trucks blare a very loud, annoying tune every morning and night. Even near schools and hospitals – that is illegal in most countries – these loud noises can be heard. The foreign student finds it quite disturbing to the peace and tranquility in the morning or during study time and may be quite disturbed by the irony of being questioned about a loud burst of laughter. Taiwanese also revel in congestion, the “renao” or noisy warm feeling. One need only take a walk in a night market or on a street at night, or live in the city, to experience congestion to a high extent. Most foreign students require a certain amount of personal space that Taiwanese sometimes are surprised or even appalled by. Also there are many little taboos like they type of gifts we give or color dress we wear and the type of words we may say that Taiwanese find very important to their culture but would be considered as too arcane for foreigners. Foreign students just want to relax and feel accepted and too many restrictions or rules and regulations will affect acculturation and adaptation to Taiwan.. 26.

(27) Student Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Factors According to Pendersen (1991) international students need to learn a wide range of culturally defined and typically unfamiliar roles in a short time while they are under considerable stress. Once international students learn and adapt to the requirements and roles of the new culture, however, their experience is likely to be successful. However, numerous researchers have found learning to adapt proves to be difficult. Researchers discovered many factors of dissatisfaction, involving aspects of enculturation, cultural adaptation, social adjustment, inter-cultural communication, and racism and learning difficulties encountered by international students. The cross-cultural experience of the students proves to be very challenging. In general the students’ experience is not only shaped by their personal histories, cultural traditions and professional aspirations; it is also continually reshaped by new cultural experiences, but in ways that that are neither uniform nor predictable. Students interpret new experiences in a variety of ways, and their imagination is always a product of a range of factors, some of which are known to them, while others are not. As a result, the international students find themselves in a struggle to make sense of their experience. Loneliness, depression, homesickness, academic concerns, language proficiency, discrimination, cultural differences, personal characteristics, and financial concerns are just a few of the difficulties experienced by many international students (Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Surdam & Collins, 1984). In an article entitled ‘International Students in Russia’, Hasan Khondokar points out that the international students in Russia face a number of problems that affect adaptation such as new socio-culture, environment, education system, language of dialogue, adaptation to culture of the new country, and financial problems due to economic difficulties, which cause stress. Many students complain of loss of appetite, weariness, slackness, sleeplessness, bad mood, and irritability. Many teachers do not understand the problems of the foreign students, do not have experience of teaching to the foreigners, and have no free time to be engaged afterhours. Some teachers behave rudely to the foreigners, showing nationalism. Still more humiliating for the foreign students are those officials who check the background documents, ask for money, and use offensive language when dealing with the students.. . 27.

(28) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. As students move from one culture to another, behavioral modes and values they have learned at home may prove inadequate and mal-adaptive in a new society. To reduce the high degree of uncertainty and isolation because of these modes and values, students have to acquire social skills, ranging from language competence to driving abilities that are practiced and accepted in the new society. Physical factors affecting international students Fitting into the host culture involves changes in: roles which mean disengaging from old roles that not longer exist for the student to new collegiate ones in a new culture. Moreover, the international student needs to make new friends or peer groups. Academic demands mean adapting to the expectations of the institutions. Social demands require getting integrated into the culture of the host country. One major factor is communication. Communication is crucial to the adaptation and satisfaction of foreign students. Only through communication with the new society and its members will newcomers develop insight into the new environment. Learning could not take place without communication, either through intrapersonal, interpersonal, mass communication, or most commonly, combinations of those channels. Through communication, international students may come to better understand social practices and cultural patterns of the host society. However, communication is difficult to attain. International students cited language difficulties as one of the primary reasons for not interacting socially with host country students (Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986). Research has shown that language restrictions are detrimental to academic performance and to the overall educational experience. Although these studies suggest the need for social contact with host nationals, such contact among international students seems limited by their language proficiency level which, in turn, deters communication with peers, teachers, and counselors (Bochner, Hutnik, & Furnham, 1985; Furnham & Alibhai, 1985). Likewise, the interactive class discussions may work against international students and limit the potential benefits they could bring to domestic students (Huxur et al., 1996). In Australia, Asian students are exposed to negative experiences in classroom interaction; they pointed to instances of racial discrimination, cultural indifference, suppression of “voice,” and a perception that local students do not appreciate them (Edgeworth & Eiseman 2007).. 28.

(29) Devos (2003) and Jones (1999) focused on international students studying in Australia. Their conclusions revealed that cultural factors cause problems for international students. These cultural problems related more to adjusting in communication and being unable to understand the language and thus affected the students’ academic culture. Others could not adapt to the bureaucratic system of the universities, for example how the library functions and the services available – all in a language that they have little exposure to. Devos further added that it makes the international students be perceived as contemptuous and resentful when they refuse to adapt or cannot adapt. The ability to socialize is another factor. International students experience new and unfamiliar cultural environments; thus their abilities to succeed socially are limited. Making friends is an important factor in this successful socialization and adaptation. Unfortunately, host students neither make themselves available nor make an effort great enough to create a bridge for international friendship. In addition, host nationals generally recognize that international students have language difficulties but hosts are often insensitive to the need of the international student for conversation (Bochner, Hutnik, & Furnham, 1985; Furnham & Alibhai, 1985). Cunningham’s (1991) survey of 53 Canadian universities indicated two categories of barriers to integration: barriers related to international students themselves and barriers related to the institutional community. Their lack of familiarity with the educational and social systems was listed as a barrier. They tended to stick to co-nationals. International students placed so much importance on academic achievement that many spent little time on social activities. Lack of crosscultural awareness and sensitivity among all university constituents and the local community was listed as a barrier. In Australia, there is a lack of interaction between local and international students. The locals find it uncomfortable and the international students opted out of social relationships because of the incompatibility of values in social activities (Volet & Ang, 1998; Edgeworth & Eiseman 2007). A comparative study of three ethnic groups in New Zealand universities, by Beaver and Tuck (1998) found that overseas students’ desired interaction with local students, were concerned about social isolation, and believed heterogeneous classes facilitate the achievement of their personal learning goals but the local group known as Pakeha students, those of European descent, did not share the same . 29.

(30) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. sentiment and placed significantly greater value on homogenous classes and less value on opportunities for social interaction with foreigners. Financial pressures or restrictions hindered some international students from joining in social gatherings and parties (Cunningham, 1991). This might create tension while the person learns the best ways in which to utilize the money available (e.g., grocery shopping, transportation options, movies, and so forth). Financial problems were the most frequently reported problems in 1988 and 1999 surveys in Canada. Nearly 52% of all students reported problems with obtaining money for living expenses and 48% reported problems obtaining money for tuition. In a study by Boyer and Sedlacek (1986) at the University of Maryland, College Park, 24% of international students reported the hardest part of adjusting to college was meeting the financial expenses. Walker (1999) findings from studies suggest that international students are experiencing considerable financial hardships. These include government and institutional policies such as differential tuition fees, and right-to-work restrictions. Lyakhovetska, (2004) interviewed 10 students studying at Pacific University in Canada and also found consistency with Walker that students feel insecure financially with high tuition and limited financial aid; they are restricted in seeking employment in most cases and have limited access to employment, factors which create additional financial hardships. The need for institutional support is a factor that directly affects international students academically.. Fifty-nine percent of administrators (international student. advisors and the heads of international offices) who responded to Cunningham' s survey (1991) indicated that unless there was a problem, their institution did not care about international students. Lyakhovetska, (2004) found that the majority of participants felt their needs in academic programming, social interaction, community sensitivity, support services,. institutional. policies,. and. the. role. of. international. students. in. internationalization were not fully met and improvements would enable them to have better educational and social experiences. De Vita (2000) discussed challenges students face as a result of lack of institutional support which include the practical issues of travelling to the UK (from the nuts and bolts of arranging visas to orientation difficulties). Coupled with institutional support is the school culture. International students are confronted with an educational culture, both at lecturer and system levels, that. 30.

(31) undervalues their prior learning experiences. In Australia research has shown that the academic adjustments that international students make are generally the most challenging and enduring, with teaching approach, classroom culture, academic expectations and classroom interactions with local students (Burns, 1991; Mullins, Quintrell, & Hancock, 1995). Mullins et al. (1995), in their study of three South Australian universities found that the student participants held the perception that lecturers and academic staff gave international students less attention than local students. In the US both Story (1982) and Shana (1997) found that international students have great difficulty adjusting to the school culture and it affects their academic performance. Some teachers view them as academically incompetent for not expressing or defending their views in class. Other research in the US concluded that issues related to language acquisition and competence as well as pedagogic issues expected to arise from differences in teaching and learning styles, attitudes to participation in classes, and conventions on how to structure and reference written work, all affect the foreign students’ adaptation (De Vita, 2000). The living conditions of students seem to have a significant impact on their adjustment. Of the campuses surveyed by Cunningham (1991) only 21% indicated they had an on-campus housing policy for international students. Most of the campuses allocated housing to international students on the same basis as Canadian students. Lyakhovetska, (2004) also finds that absence of priority housing policy creates adaptation hardships for foreign students. Edgeworth and Eiseman (2007) in their study found that the particular residences and composition of the residences that international students were allocated to had a profound influence on the quality of their social and academic adjustment experience. In the worst-case situations, students felt alienated and anxious in their living arrangements. John Clammer in an article on international education pointed out that with this expansion of numbers of foreign students to Japan, some fairly severe problems have become apparent which include adaptation to culture especially the absorption of the very high cost of living in Japan, and access to housing The absorption of foreign students and their acceptance as social equals is one of the great tests of the internationalization in Japan. Another concern of international students is the choice of food offered in dining halls and food courts in campus facilities. They would like more cultural variety of food . 31.

(32) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. and more vegetarian selections. Alazzi and Chiodo (2006) in their research interviewed 8 foreign students attending universities in US and found that they all had conflicting norms and expectation of the food. Many other researchers (Dillard and Chisolm, 1983; Edgeworth & Eiseman, 2007; Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986 among others) have found foreign students complain of the type of food of the host country but none have made any significant conclusion on food as a serious factor. It should be a factor looked into more deeply. Psychological factors affecting international students The psychological adaptation factors refer to feelings of well-being and satisfaction of the student in their host countries. In moving to another country for the first time, international students experience profound psychological problems that are unique in their nature. There is loss of social support and status, loss of familiar cues, loss of certainty, and self-worth. As a consequence, they often feel less confident and tenser, tend to take less time off, become preoccupied with academic demands, and may even become confused over how to live day to day. Adaptation to the cultural values, norms, and behaviors of the dominant group generally causes unavoidable psychological distress for international students. As a consequence, threats to cultural identity, powerlessness, feelings of marginality, sense of inferiority, loneliness, hostility, and perceived alienation and discrimination become major mental health risks (Rutter & Tienda, 2005). Farrokh' s (1988) study of 13 international graduate students at University of British Columbia in Canada revealed that a range of social and personal needs had to be satisfied: security, support, self-worth, self-acceptance, competence and autonomy, identity and belonging, love, fulfillment and meaning in life. Nebedum-Ezeh’s (1997) study of ten African students at institutions of higher education in Western Massachusetts revealed that African students felt isolated and disconnected from domestic counterparts. Others indicate loneliness and isolation. Ishii' s (1997) study of five international graduate students at University of British Columbia found overwhelming feelings of nervousness, fear, loneliness, feelings of inadequacy, and invisibility. Ishii' s study also emphasizes students feeling small and losing self-confidence and some even felt shame and depression. This shifted their priorities from academic success to survival and struggle to. 32.

(33) feel “normal” just as “Canadians.” International students reported that loneliness and cultural displacement undercut self-confidence as they felt detachment from both their home and host countries (Garrod & Davis, 1999). Chapman and Pyvis (2006) conducted research on students in Australian universities. A major dilemma shared by the Hong Kong professional doctorate students was how to develop a ‘sense of belonging’ - their various forms of identity (international student, university student, doctoral student, offshore student) into one form of student identity -and being offshore students they feel that they were not part of the university community. Leong & Sedlacek (1986) discuss how most international students deal with stress in isolation. The students may estrange themselves from potential sources of social support such as cultural and sports groups. They isolate themselves from others who can help them learn about the new environment and from co-nationals with whom they can discuss similar problems. Amoh (1995) drew the same conclusion that foreign students isolate themselves from host nationals some because of more serious problems. Alazzi and Chiodo (2006) described it as a crisis in which the foreign students feel isolated and stress themselves trying to prove their capability despite their lack of participation. They conclude that generally the foreign students suffer from stress and anxiety trying to fit in and develop a sense of belonging; such stress often leads to a feeling of inadequacy and a loss of self-confidence. Stereotyping, prejudice or racial discrimination is serious psychological factors. Different students will encounter different prejudices in the form of stereotypes depending on their own specific stigmatized characteristics. This tendency to think of members of other cultures in terms of stereotypes (i.e., the excitable Arabs; the amorous French; the touchy Italians; the lazy Latinos; the volatile Hungarians; the materialistic Americans; and so forth) can be another stumbling block to their adaptation. In their study on foreign students at a Canadian university, Heikinheimo and Shute (1986) found 91% of foreign students feel themselves victims of racial discrimination. The students feel service workers and teachers are less polite and less helpful to them, and that testing and grading favored Canadian students. Sodowsky and Plake (1992) examined the acculturation of students studying in the U.S. from various countries and continents and have found a great deal of perceived prejudice to these students from Americans. Likewise,. . 33.

(34) International Higher Education: A Study of the Effect of Satisfaction on Foreign Students’ Performance in Taiwan. Spencer-Rogers (2001) pointed out the negative attributions ascribed to international students by host national peers and instructors describing them as withdrawn, insular, and socially inhibited. The international students were stereotyped as educationally inadequate or behaviorally inappropriate in classroom settings. These psychological issues can be viewed under the term culture shock. Oberg (1960), who is also credited with coining the term “culture shock”, in his research found that students develop a trauma when placed in a new and unfamiliar culture. They have lost their day-today social interactions, rules, language, cultural conventions, and norms which create a certain traumatic stress and anxiety – culture shock. Oberg (1960) described six aspects. that accompany and affect culture shock: 1) Sense of loss and feelings of deprivation (in regards to friends, status, profession and possessions; decrease of social interaction); 2) Strain (anxiety as a result of the efforts to make the necessary adaptations); 3) Ejection (being rejected by and/or rejecting members of a new culture due to stereotyping); 4) Confusion (mixed feelings in role, values, feelings and self-identity); 5) Surprise and distress after becoming aware of cultural differences; and 6) Feelings of being less important or capable (low self-esteem; perceived inability for not being able to cope with the new environment due to language limitations). The levels of anxiety, stress and rejection vary from one individual to another and from culture to culture. However, there is not enough research yet to explain for whom the shock will be more or less intense (men/women, less educated individuals, university or college students, etc.); what determines which reaction a person is likely to experience; how long will they remain in a period of shock; and so forth. Nevertheless, culture shock is not always an unpleasant experience. De Vita (2000) concludes in his study that the emotional and affective issues of culture shock (homesickness, isolation, etc.) do affect the international students’ adaptation.. 34.

(35) Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture One of the most often quoted cultural theorists is Geert Hofstede, a Dutch cultural anthropologist. From 1978 to 1983, he conducted a landmark cultural study of hundreds of IBM employees in 53 countries. He identified four primary dimensions of cultural difference: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity. These four dimensions of culture analyze how patterns of acting, feeling and thinking are often ingrained in people and the differences in these cultural patterns are displayed in the choice of symbols, rituals and values. The dimensions represent separate but interdependent continua along which culturally influenced attitudes of both nations and individuals can be assessed concerning such important issues such as authority, emotional display, and the appropriate roles of individuals in family, society, and it the interest of this study, school. The dimensions are measured by indices and rankings. Power distance Power distance (PD) refers to how much less powerful members depend on more powerful members of the group. In large power distance countries, like China, the dependence of subordinates on supervisors is considerable. Hofstede claims that large PD countries tend to have centralized political power and exhibit tall hierarchies in organizations. Subordinates are expected to be obedient to supervisors and do as they are told. Statistics show that large PD countries tend to have larger populations. In small power distance countries, like the United States, subordinates depend less on authority, and there is a strong indication of interdependence relationship. Subordinates and supervisors are closer together and are more interchangeable. The hierarchical structure is flatter, with less difference in status. The Power Distance Index (PDI) is the measurement of how comfortable the people of a culture are with unequal distribution of authority and power in society. A high PDI index indicates a culture that is more comfortable with unequal power distribution, while a low PDI indicates a culture that is less comfortable with unequal power distribution.. . 35.