Identity

The debate of identities tends to have a linkage with the sense of belonging that individuals have to their ethnic and cultural communities (Bekkout, 2015). Identities are often socially referenced in regards to feedback about how they are perceived by individuals from various reference groups (Shotter, 1993, as cited in Kim, Suyemoto, & Turner, 2010). In connection with this feedback, people construct their own identities and make own interpretations. These socially referenced identities, in turn, affect the ways in which individuals enact their identities and interact with referent groups are affected by these identities (Kim et al., 2010).

Weinberg (1996) states “identity is multi-faceted,” in that “an individual can identify with more than one group in multiple levels” (as cited in Bekkout, 2015). Iyall Smith (2008) asserts that this identification process appears to distinguish, assimilate or hybridize ethnic groups. Differentiation includes the exclusion process of certain individuals because they are less similar to the dominant group (Vallee, Schwartz, & Darknell, 1957, as cited in Bekkout, 2015).

2.4.1 Social Identity

Tajfel (1979) suggested that a big source of pride and self-esteem should be the communities (e.g. social classes, families or football teams, etc.). Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of social world association. In a process of social categorization (i.e.

putting people into social groups), we divide the world into the "them" and the "us".

Henri Tajfel proposed that stereotyping (i.e. grouping people in groups and categories) should be based on a natural cognitive process: the differences between groups; the similarities of things in the same group.

The core forms of identity are unique to every person, but all these identities represent the relationship between individuals and their closest environment. Social identity should therefore be viewed as structured and manifest in many ways. The social context of interaction defines these types. We could therefore conclude that there is one identity with many forms (Ganeyeva, 2008).

The core social identities are:

 Racial/ethnic

 National

 Religious

 Class

 Gender

 Age

The multilevel theory of identity is based on the "identity matrix" definition that S.

Moscovichi (1998) suggests. This concept states that human identity consists of various identifications. In the matrix, information is circulated under the control of an identity or group of identities that dominates at a given moment. The corresponding worldview angle is thus determined.

2.4.2 Multiple Identities

Due to intercultural interactions and influences, unique cultures change and new identities can therefore be formed which belong to different groups of the community. Cultural media and popular culture are factors which determine identity shaping. The concept of multiple identities is common in culturally diverse societies such as the Russian society. Such identities may be based on family background, cultural heritage, place of birth, religious affiliation or social identification.

The acknowledgement that multiple identities are the symbol of the wide range of social affiliations of individuals and of the diversity in the nature of their lives (Moskovichi, 1998), is another guiding principle. The matrix of identity has a social character. The configuration and content depend on societal peculiarities. This depends on the social identity components.

It is based on different principles, definitions and guidelines: group (family, occupation, generation, etc.), the physical (appearance, sex, age), political (civil and national), spatial and socio-cultural (language, religion, etc.). It is also based on different identities. The matrix defines the self-identification of the person and involves individual and collective identifications. When the identity matrix is used as an analytical category, the compound structure of the individual (personal) and collective identity can be interpreted as such (Balich

& Mukha, 2015).

2.4.3 Collective identity

As a result of social interaction and individual recognition of his affiliation to some co mmunity or social group, collective identity is created. This generates the subjective notion (individual perception of collective ideas) of psychological significance to humans. The result of this interaction are: (1) a community of ideas, values and interests; an appreciation of the discrepancies between "us" and "them;" (2) psychological guidelines and behavioral patterns governing relationships with similar and "alien" communities; (3) group solidarity decided by

groups, including "alien" ones. Thus, the feeling of empathy for "friends" defines the social behavior of people because, in the same situations, the active feeling-in is a basis for helping or altruistic behaviour. Examples of such collective identities are families, kin, ethnicities and nationality (Melucci, 1995).

2.4.4 Cultural Identity

As discussed earlier, culture is the most important shaper of identity. Gans (2003) argues that one's cultural identity stems from cultural nationalism, also known as ethnocultural nationalism, through which group members share a common past and social culture. While cultural nationalism refers to commitment to cultural elements, there is incongruity between cultural nationalism and cultural identity, as cultural identity is based on distinctions between cultures and can separate members of a social group or country rather than unite them. However, the two concepts can coexist or contribute to ambiguity, depending on the view taken; an identity crisis in migrants who struggle between adhering to their host nation's cultural nationalism and having their own distinct bicultural identity. The key factor for one definition which overrides the other can be the culture or country with which one more strongly identifies.

National history is, apart from culture, often the basis for identifying, because it can be perceived as undeniable and unchangeable, and consists of national symbols and events connecting individuals of the same race or relationship. Symbolic labeling (e.g.

costume, flag or national food) represents social distinction, or the manner in which members of a society decide who the group includes or who is excluded. In multicultural societies, such as Russia, on the other hand, cosmopolitanism provides a sense of global citizenship that provides people with the feeling of being citizens of this world and not necessarily of a specific culture or national origin (Gans, 2003).

A research by Smolicz et al. (1998) showed that an individual can either feel or express a number of cultural identities at the same time or when appropriate. Two or more identities

are in many cases intertwined but conveyed in different ways or actions, like speaking, singing or joking. For instance, sometimes one may feel and identify with their Spanish culture while others may choose to affirm their French or "other" identity (Smolicz et al., 1998). This implies the ambiguity and multidimensional notion of cultural identity and its situational flexibility.

Chambers (1994) also promotes the existence of different identities that are often exchanged, recognized and mixed when one lives apart from home.

2.4.5 Hybrid Identity

Assimilation demonstrates the decrease in the unique traits of individuals that conform to the prevailing values of the majority of the group (Verkuyten, 2011, as cited in Bekkout, 2015). Hybridization is defined as the estrangement from existing practices in order to adopt new practices which create new cultures and thus, new identities (Iyall Smith, 2008, as cited in Bekkout, 2015).

As stated by Iyall Smith (2008, p.5), the hybrid identity “might allow the globe to unite in its differences, to be a truly multicultural society capable of recognizing and reconciling diversity”. This combination of various cultural categories leads to development of new hybrid identities. There are several hybrid identities on which researchers rely to examine how individuals identify themselves, including ‘third space,’ ‘duality,’ ‘borderless’ and ‘gender’

identities (Iyall Smith, 2008, as cited in Bekkout, 2015).

2.4.6 Situational identity

Situation identity occurs when a person creates and presents one of the several possible social identities, depending on the situation, whether the religion, ethnicity or lifestyle is a specific option (Cohen & Kennedy 2012).

In comparison to the definition of a "fixed identity," the definition of situation identity is flexible. People switch between situational identities easily in the real world. For instance, in certain social situations, a person who is half-Italian half-French may want to associate with

a specific ethnicity (e.g. in a soccer game). This choice may even be important to his/her personal security.