成為僑民：布里亞特身分在台灣及西歐的轉變 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis. 成為僑民：布里亞特身分在台灣及西歐的轉變 Becoming Diaspora: The Transformation of Buryat Identity in Taiwan and Western Europe. Student: Nomin Dambieva 吳愛明 Advisor: Barry Fong 方孝謙. 中華民國 109 年 2 月 February 2020. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(2) 成為僑民：布里亞特身分在台灣及西歐的轉變 Becoming Diaspora: The Transformation of Buryat Identity in Taiwan and Western Europe. 研究生：吳愛明. Student: Nomin Dambieva. 指導教授：方孝謙. Advisor: Barry Fong. 國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程碩士論文. A Thesis Submitted to International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國 109 年 2 月 February 2020. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(3) AKNWOLEDGEMENT The success of this study required the help of various individuals. Without them, I might not meet the objectives of doing this research. I want to give gratitude to the following people for their invaluable help and support: First, I would like to thank my advisor, Shiaw-Chian Fong, from the bottom of my heart for his patience, support and guidance. Thank you for finding your time in your busy schedule and willingness to meet whenever I needed. Next, I would like to express my gratitude to committee members, professor Elaine Lin and Liu Yi-Chun. Thank you for giving me advices in revision of my thesis, and for your comments on improving the research and constructive criticism. I thank my interviewees with enormous gratitude, for their time and willingness to participate in this research. Without them, I would not be able to finish my thesis. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family members and friends for their constant support, encouragement, and inspiration. Thanks to my mom, dad, sister and brother, when I needed you the most, you were there for me. Thanks to my friends, Lygzhima, thanks for coming to Taiwan to see me and support me. Thanks to Luck, Thao and Beer for giving me advices on writing my thesis and also for rehearsing with me thesis presentation. Sarah and Ginger thank you for your constant support and inspiration. Thanks to Phoebe, for assistance with all the courses and my thesis, you are one of the reasons why I love this program so much. Thanks to all of my friends from Russia for being there for me. Thanks to all of my IMICS friends for giving me unforgettable memories throughout this academic journey.. i DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(4) ABSTRACT The qualitative research contributes to social science studies related to diaspora and identity politics. There are few studies conducted on Buryat diasporas living in different countries other than Russia, Mongolia and China. This research debates Cohen’s classification of different types of diaspora and explain the reasons behind that, using in-depth interviews. Buryat diaspora in Taiwan and Western Europe do not fit into any of this classifications. The new type of so-called ‘highly-skilled’ diaspora is discussed. The research contributes to the definition of ethnic identity, emphasizing the importance of such components as self-categorization, behavioral involvement, in-group attitudes, exploration and attachment and commitment. Buryats develop Russian and Buryat collective identity, adopting diasporic hybrid identity, after moving to the host country, which consists of their early socialization, collective identity and demographic environmental influences, such as ties to homeland, hostland, migration reasons and their lived experience. Understanding of lifestyle of overseas Buryats would also help to understand acculturation processes which are significant discourses in social science. Both diasporas adopt integration acculturation strategy. Key words: Buryat, ethnic identity, identity, diaspora, diasporic identity, collective identity, home, belonging, acculturation strategy, Taiwan, Western Europe.. ii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS AKNWOLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................................... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................. iii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ........................................................................................................ vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Research background, Research Objectives, Problem statement .............................................. 3 1.2.1 Research background ...................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.2 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 4 1.2.3 Problem statement ............................................................................................................................ 4 1.3. Significance and expected output of the proposed research ....................................................... 4 1.4. Thesis outline ............................................................................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 7 DIASPORA AND TRANSNATIONALISM .......................................................................................... 7 2.2 Diaspora....................................................................................................................................................... 7 2.2.1 The notion of diaspora .................................................................................................................... 7 2.2.2 Diasporic communities ................................................................................................................... 9 2.2.3 Migration .......................................................................................................................................... 11 2.2.4 The concepts of ‘home’, ‘place’, and ‘belonging’ ................................................................ 12 2.3 The Emergence of Transnationalism ................................................................................................ 13 2.3.1 Transnational migration................................................................................................................ 14 IDENTITY AND THE NOTIONS OF IDENTITY ............................................................................ 15 2.4 Identity ....................................................................................................................................................... 15 2.4.1 Social Identity.................................................................................................................................. 15 2.4.2 Multiple Identities .......................................................................................................................... 17 2.4.3 Collective identity .......................................................................................................................... 17 2.4.4 Cultural Identity .............................................................................................................................. 18 2.4.5 Hybrid Identity ................................................................................................................................ 19 2.4.6 Situational identity ......................................................................................................................... 19 2.5 Ethnicity and nationalism ..................................................................................................................... 20 2.5.1 Nationalism ...................................................................................................................................... 20 2.5.2 National Identity ............................................................................................................................. 20 2.5.3 Ethnicity ............................................................................................................................................ 21 iii. 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(6) 2.5.4 Ethnic Identity ................................................................................................................................. 21 2.5.4.1 Components of ethnic identity ............................................................................................ 23 2.5.4.2 Stages of Ethnic Identity ...................................................................................................... 25 2.5.4.3 Acculturation ........................................................................................................................... 26 2.6 Diasporic identity.................................................................................................................................... 27 2.6.1 Diasporic hybrid identity.............................................................................................................. 28 CHAPTER 3 CONTEXT AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ................................................ 29 3.1 History of Buryats .................................................................................................................................. 29 3.2 Socio-political and economic discriminations: Russian role ..................................................... 36 3.2.1 Early socialization process of Buryats ..................................................................................... 36 3.3 BURYAT IDENTITY ........................................................................................................................... 37 3.3.1 Identity and ‘belonging’ ............................................................................................................... 38 3.3.2 Homeland, nature, territory ......................................................................................................... 39 3.3.2.1 Ancestral homeland ............................................................................................................... 39 3.3.2.2 National homeland ................................................................................................................ 42 3.3.3 Traditional dance and festivals ................................................................................................... 43 3.3.4 Language ........................................................................................................................................... 46 3.3.5 Religion ............................................................................................................................................. 48 3.3.6 Acculturation strategy of Buryats in Russia ........................................................................... 50 3.4 Buryat Diaspora ...................................................................................................................................... 51 3.4.1 Historical and Migrant Buryat Diaspora.................................................................................. 51 3.4.1.1 Buryat diaspora in China (Inner Mongolia) .................................................................. 51 3.4.1.2 Buryat diaspora in Mongolia ............................................................................................. 51 3.5 Buryat Identity in the Diaspora........................................................................................................... 53 3.5.1 Ethnic identity of Shenehen Buryats ........................................................................................ 53 3.5.2 Ethnic identity of Mongolian Buryats ...................................................................................... 55 3.5.3 Acculturation strategy of Buryats in diasporas ...................................................................... 55 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODS .......................................................... 57 4.1 Research questions ................................................................................................................................. 57 4.2 Research model ....................................................................................................................................... 57 4.3 Data collection ......................................................................................................................................... 57 4.3.1 Thematic analysis ........................................................................................................................... 58 4.4 Sampling frame ....................................................................................................................................... 59 4.4.1 List of the interviewees ................................................................................................................. 60 4.4.2 Interview process and guidelines ............................................................................................... 60 4.4.3 Semi-structured interviews .......................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER 5 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 64 iv. 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(7) 5.1 BURYAT DIASPORA IN TAIWAN............................................................................................... 64 5.1.1 Buryat and Russian collective identity.......................................................................................... 64 5.1.1.1 Self-categorization ...................................................................................................................... 64 5.1.1.2 Importance of group membership .......................................................................................... 66 5.1.1.3 In-group attitudes ........................................................................................................................ 67 5.1.1.4 Behavioral involvement ............................................................................................................ 68 Culture .......................................................................................................................................................... 68 5.1.1.4.1 Religion ................................................................................................................................. 70 5.1.1.4.2 Traditional holidays........................................................................................................... 71 5.1.1.4.3 Language............................................................................................................................... 72 5.1.1.5 Exploration ................................................................................................................................... 72 5.1.1.6 Attachment and commitment .................................................................................................. 73 5.1.2 Demographic environmental influences ....................................................................................... 73 5.1.2.1 Reasons of migration ................................................................................................................. 73 5.1.2.2 Homeland ...................................................................................................................................... 74 5.1.2.3 Hostland ......................................................................................................................................... 76 5.1.2.3.1 Challenges ............................................................................................................................ 77 5.1.2.3.2 Acculturation strategy ....................................................................................................... 77 5.2 BURYAT DIASPORA IN WESTERN EUROPE ........................................................................ 79 5.2.1 Buryat and Russian collective identity.......................................................................................... 79 5.2.1.1 Self-categorization ...................................................................................................................... 79 5.2.1.2 Importance of group membership .......................................................................................... 80 5.2.1.3 In-group attitudes ........................................................................................................................ 80 5.2.1.4 Behavioral involvement ............................................................................................................ 81 Culture .......................................................................................................................................................... 81 5.2.1.4.1 Religion ................................................................................................................................. 82 5.2.1.4.2 Traditional holidays........................................................................................................... 83 5.2.1.4.3 Language............................................................................................................................... 83 5.2.1.5 Exploration ................................................................................................................................... 84 5.2.1.6 Attachment and commitment .................................................................................................. 84 5.2.2 Demographic environmental influences ....................................................................................... 84 5.2.2.1 Reasons of migration ................................................................................................................. 84 5.2.2.2 Homeland ...................................................................................................................................... 85 5.2.2.3 Hostland ......................................................................................................................................... 86 5.2.2.3.1 Acculturation strategy ....................................................................................................... 87 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 88 6.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 88 v. 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(8) 6.1.1 Importance of identity components ........................................................................................... 89 6.1.2 Diasporic hybrid identity.............................................................................................................. 92 6.2 Limitations ................................................................................................................................................ 95 6.3 Future research ........................................................................................................................................ 96 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 97 APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................................. 102. vi. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(9) LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Tables Table 1. List of interviewees (1) ............................................................................................................. 60 Table 2. List of interviewees (2)............................................................................................................. 60 Table 3. Interview questions ................................................................................................................... 62 Table 4. Culture (Taiwan) ......................................................................................................................... 68 Table 5. Culture (WE) ................................................................................................................................. 81 Table 6. Summary of the findings .......................................................................................................... 88 Table 7. Ranking of importance of identity components.............................................................. 89 Table 8. Number of references coded .................................................................................................. 90 Table 9. Cohen's charactersitics comparison .................................................................................... 93. Figures Figure 1. Buryat people ............................................................................................................................... 2 Figure 2. Map of Republic of Buryatia .................................................................................................... 3 Figure 3. Stages of Ethnic Identity ......................................................................................................... 25 Figure 4. Acculturation strategies ......................................................................................................... 26 Figure 5. Lake Baikal (Olkhon Island) .................................................................................................. 41 Figure 6. Yohor, traditional dance of Buryats ................................................................................... 43 Figure 7. National wrestling "bukha barldaan" ................................................................................ 45 Figure 8. Buryat diaspora in New York ............................................................................................... 46 Figure 9. Shaman performing a Shamanic ritual ............................................................................. 48 Figure 10. Research model ....................................................................................................................... 57 Figure 11. Hierarchy of references........................................................................................................ 92. vii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(10) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Globalization poses a certain threat to mankind as a whole and to separate ethnic groups. In a global age, the loss of ethnic identity fades the differences between ethnic groups and therefore leads to processes of assimilation that demolish identities, such as their values, cultures, languages and traditions. Ethnic identity formation which has wide effects on minority communities, on the individuals and on society as a whole, is a contentious and challenging issue in politics and science. Crossroads between global mechanisms – economic, financial, and cultural – establish a complex patchwork of identities and belongings. This has important implications for and understanding the conditions of identity formation (Hoijer ¨ et al., 2004; Ong, 1999, as cited in Lidskog, 2016). Ethnic identity formation among immigrants is a recurrent theme within broader debates on issues such as migration, integration, and social cohesion. Buryat people The Buryat people are an ethnic group living in Southeastern Siberia, on the shores of Lake Baikal on the territory of Ethnic Buryatia (Figure 1). Being culturally and linguistically Mongol, they have been incorporated into the Russian Empire in the middle of the 17th century. Roughly 500,000 people identify themselves as a Buryat, making the Buryats the largest indigenous group in Siberia. The Buryat people are descendants of several different ethnic groups including Mongolian and indigenous Siberian. The official languages of Buryats in Russia are Russian and Buryat. The main religions are Tibetan Buddhism and Shamanism. Currently, the majority of Buryats live in three countries: Siberian Russia, northern Outer Mongolia and Chinese Inner Mongolia (Montgomery, 2005, as cited in Sartor, 2016).. 1 DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(11) Figure 1. Buryat people. The situation of Buryat society, their identity, culture and ethnic group as a social unit is very complicated nowadays (Nowicka, Wyszyński, 1996, as cited in Nowicka, 2015). The development of the Buryat nation faces multiple factors that act as barriers in the process of building a nation. One of these is the geographical distribution of about half a million people in the Buryat population. Areas where Buryat people are still living are broad and distinguished by their natural environment and their political (legal) status (although far less so than they had centuries ago, when they lived as exclusively nomadic people).. 2. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(12) Figure 2. Map of Republic of Buryatia. 1.2. Research background, Research Objectives, Problem statement 1.2.1 Research background Being raised in a multicultural and multinational country, many Buryats in Russia identify themselves as Buryats. However, since I moved to Taiwan for studying, my identity is often challenged. I often questioned by locals about my appearance that doesn’t match with their perception of Russians. When I say where I come from I have to explain that I am not of Russian ethnicity, I am a Buryat, since the majority of people have the stereotype that Russians are all of Slavic appearance and are all blonde and have blue eyes. Then everyone asks me who the Buryats are. I then explain that it is a subgroup of the Mongols. But the question is to whom I belong? How do I identify myself? As a Russian, as a Buryat, or as a Mongol? There are some people who only speak Buryat and do not talk to Russians and there are some people who studied in Russian-speaking schools and do not have a strong connection to their Buryat heritage. So how Buryats identify more strongly as Buryats, Russians, Mongols or someone 3. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(13) else? That is one of the reasons to conduct the research about ethnic identity of Buryats outside of the Russian Federation. The focus of this paper is on Buryat ethnic identity and the sense of belonging that they incorporate for self-identification. 1.2.2 Research Objectives The purpose of research is to find out, through the impact of migration, live experience, and background, has Buryats been undergoing a transformation to become a group with a hybrid, diasporic identity. The focus is on personal feelings of belonging and how these feelings are articulated and experiences in personal narratives. It may be mentioned here that in this study ‘identity’ is referred to demonstrate the way groups and individuals define themselves and are defined and identified by others on the basis of ethnicity, race, religion, culture, common history and language. . To evaluate key factors affecting the formation of Buryat diasporic identity. . To find out how Buryat diaspora is different from the theoretical types specified by Cohen. . To explore how the Buryat diaspora in Taiwan is different from other Buryat diasporas in other countries.. . To find out distinctive features in Buryat diasporic identity.. . To analyze acculturation strategies of Buryat diaspora in the hostland.. 1.2.3 Problem statement Cohen did not include late modern transnational mobility that takes significantly novel forms (such as transnational commuting or mental migration) that cannot be readily discarded as having no relevance to the study of diasporic phenomena (cf. Tölölian 1991; Cunningham & Sinclair, 2000, as cited in Tsagarousianou, 2004). 1.3. Significance and expected output of the proposed research There are few studies conducted on Buryat diasporas living in different countries other than Russia, Mongolia and China. Understanding of lifestyle of overseas Buryats would also 4. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(14) help to understand acculturation processes which are significant discourses in social science. The societal relevance is to identify the problems and cultural differences within the community, and to help create awareness about their different identities. It is important to learn how minority ethnic group preserves their culture, language and traditions under the influence of the majority, in this case, Russian state. In addition, how minority ethnic group’s identity changes when they migrate to a different country. Study of Buryat migration and their identity challenges would help to understand general behavior of an ethnic group specifically Buryats in a majority society. 1.4. Thesis outline This study is presented in six chapters. Chapter 1 presents an introduction to the topic of concern which outlines the study's context and focus. It summarizes the questions and goals of the research and explains the terms and concepts used in the study. It also introduces the area of study and the social problem that the research work required. The Chapter 2, the literature review, discusses in detail the concepts of identity, the components of ethnic identity, transnationalism, migration, acculturation and sense of belonging. It provides the theoretical framework correlated with people's identity and migration which drives research results presentation and evaluation. The Chapter 3 narrates the detailed account of history of Buryat ethnic group and their origin to examine the historical background of the Buryat ethnic group and their process of migration from time to time. The second part discusses the role of Russian state in the development of Buryat ethnic awareness. The Chapter 4, methodology, explains and justifies the choice of research strategy. The sampling techniques, tools for data collection are also discussed in this chapter. In view of the theoretical framework presented in the literature review, Chapter 5 discusses findings from the field work, interviews quotations from the respondents. Finally, Chapter Six presents an analysis of the key findings of the research in view of the objectives of the study, how the results of the research contribute to some relevant. 5. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(15) issues posed in Chapter One's introduction, the limitations of the study, and the directions for future research related to this topic.. 6. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(16) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Chapter two discusses the underlying concepts of transnationalism, diaspora, identity and sense of belonging. In the first section, the definition of diaspora, the structure and organization of the diaspora, including its sub-topics: the sense of belonging, home and place are discussed. The second section addresses transnationalism and cross-national migration approaches and interpretations.. DIASPORA AND TRANSNATIONALISM 2.2 Diaspora 2.2.1 The notion of diaspora The term "diaspora" refers to the regional dispersal of ethnic groups living as ethnic minorities within the borders of a culturally different country or society, though isolated from the cultural center. Such ethnic groups switch between two reference groups and two cultural structures, and thus form their identity under very particular circumstances (Hettlage, 1991; Damanakis, 2006, as cited in Garivaldis, 2010). The word "diaspora" derives from its Greek equivalent word, which derives from the verb speiro (to sow) and the preposition dia (throughout). Cohen (1997) refers to five diaspora types: Victim (e.g. Jews, Armenians), Labor (Indian, Chinese), Trade (Chinese, Lebanese), Imperial (British) and Cultural (Caribbean) diasporas. Diasporic communities which “settled outside their natal (or considered natal) territories, acknowledge that “the old country”- a notion often buried deep in language, religion, custom or folklore - always has some claim on their loyalty and emotion” (Cohen, 1997, p.9). According to Robin Cohen, there are 9 common features of diaspora for designating 5 ‘ideal’ types of diaspora:. 7. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(17) 1) Dispersal from an original homeland, often traumatically, to two or more foreign regions. 2) Alternatively, the expansion from a homeland in search of work, in pursuit of trade or to further colonial ambitions. 3) A collective memory and myth about the homeland, including its location, history and achievements. 4) An idealization of the putative ancestral home and a collective commitment to its maintenance, restoration, safety and prosperity, even to its creation. 5) The development of a return movement which gains collective approbation. 6) A strong ethnic group consciousness sustained over a long time and based on a sense of distinctiveness, a common history and the belief in a common fate. 7) A troubled relationship with host societies, suggesting a lack of acceptance at the least or the possibility that another calamity might befall the group. 8) A sense of empathy and solidarity with co-ethnic members in other countries of settlement. 9) The possibility of a distinctive yet creative and enriching life in host countries with a tolerance for pluralism. The prevalent concept of the diaspora, however, refers to a group of individuals who conceive of their separateness based on a set of characteristics and common ethnicity or nationality, and who reside in a host country while maintaining relations with the home country. Therefore, in the sense of the existence of a home country, diaspora is always referred to, a concept similar to “homeland,” although the former is a broader term, denoting an individual that can extend beyond the borders of the state. The commitment to the homeland is typically cultural although some studies have found that with apparent or latent impulses, such as the urge to repatriate wherever possible, it. 8. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(18) can also be politically oriented. Many ways of association include a chain of transnational links with the home country, such as sending remittances home, participating in home country elections, funding community initiatives, joining lobby groups for home or host governments, engaging in transnational criminal activity, or even, in some cases, promoting transnational terrorism (Garivaldis, 2010). Cohen’s definition is an approximation of the ideal type of diaspora. What about groups of expatriates who do not share these characteristics? It may also be extended to those communities that have expatriates for economic reasons and should be subject to the diaspora label not limited only to ethnic groups that have been forcibly extrude or fled their homelands and are characterized by collective trauma (such as starvation, political repression or ethnic purging. It may also be applied to those groups that, for purposes of economic improvement, political ambition or adventure, had expatriated themselves of their own free will. If the diaspora term is applied to this latter group, it would include American descendants of German, Scottish, English, and Swedish immigrants who, unlike Jews, Armenians, or Chinese, had never been subjected to serious danger, persecution, or legal disabilities, and who have lost any relation or interest in the native lands of their ancestors. 2.2.2 Diasporic communities Previous studies have shown that diaspora members are self-identified. “This means that events affecting [these members’] countries of origin can cause persons of a given ethnic descent living in another country to self-identify themselves as members of their homecountry’s diaspora when they hadn’t formerly considered themselves as such”, causing them to become “politically active in support of some cause affecting their home country or homeland” or “stop supporting initiatives and causes affecting their home country” (Lahneman, 2005, p. 11). It was also discovered in the same research that diasporas can overlap, so individuals may belong to more than one diaspora. For example, the Greek-Cypriot diaspora is. 9. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(19) said to be part of the Greek diaspora, and thus part of a sort of diaspora within the diaspora. As a result, the diaspora has now gained a new understanding of notions like transnational migration, global cultural hybridity and deterritorialization (Alfonso, Kokot, & Tölölyan, 2004). In addition, the word ‘diaspora’ refers to groups of different backgrounds which need to be recognized and respected for their diversity. The illustration of this diversity contains: a) Migrants, who are individuals who view their condition as either permanent (Irish immigrants to America in the 19th century) or temporary (Turkish guest workers in Germany), but who may transform into permanent diasporas. Thus, migration can be voluntary or involuntary; b) refugees who are a sub-category of migration but who indicate that the migration was spontaneous and unexpected and who believe that they will be able to return to their country of origin within a relatively short time; (c) Exiles, a category of refugees who must live in the host country until a political resolution takes place in their country of origin; (d) Ethnic groups, referring to individuals who associate themselves with other persons of the same ethnicity residing outside their home country but attach significance to their origins to some extent; e) Expatriates, people living in another country implying a voluntary exile with future plans for their return to the country; f) Indigenous peoples who, although they are not part of the diaspora per se, display many of the same features as transnational communities, their status as minorities and the distinctive cultural characteristics that are difficult to be assimilated, as in the case of Aboriginal Australians. No matter which group a displaced person belongs to, with the exception of indigenous people, either a "settler" or "migrant" is the general term to describe the individual (Garivaldis, 2010). Therefore, the new definition of diaspora has been suggested. “Migrants and descendants of migrants, whose identity and sense of belonging have been shaped by their. 10. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(20) migration experience and background” (MDP, 2019). This term can be applied to the Buryat diaspora that is the subject of this research. 2.2.3 Migration Many people might misunderstand the concept of a migrant and refugee. According to the UN Refugee Agency’s handbook (2007): A migrant is a person who voluntarily leaves his country in order to take up residence elsewhere. He may be moved by the desire for change or adventure, or by family or other reasons of a personal nature. If he is motivated exclusively by economic considerations, he is an economic migrant and not a refugee. (UNHCR Rev 1, 2007, p. 4) Two different geographical areas and three societies are affected regardless of the type of migration or its causes. The three societies are: the society of origin, the host society and the immigrants itself, and the geographic areas are the out-migration (migration abroad) and the in-migration (internal migration) (Velikonja, 1989). The incentive to migrate derives from a set of demands which are still not fulfilled in the home country of the individual or group, which the person or group seeks to achieve. According to Raventstein’s Law of migration, migrants migrate mostly over short distances, those who travel longer distances go for industry and trade, and majority go for economic reasons (Jain, 2016). Nowadays the prevailing theory of the causes for migration is the neoclassical theory that migration is mainly driven by rational economic factors, which include both financial and psychological benefits and related costs (Todaro & Smith, 2006, as cited in Lucia Kurekova, 2011). Another migration theory is push and pull theory proposed by Lee (1966), explains people migrate for two reasons. Push factors that help migrants decide to leave their home. 11. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(21) (unemployment, lack of services, poverty, war, etc.) and pull factors that attract people to an area where migrants are going (job opportunities, safer environment, better services, greater wealth, etc.) Migration can be the result of the urge to see other parts of the world, the search for discovery and adventure, difficult socio-economic conditions, and the consequences of war that forced people to seek a better life outside their own country's borders. The reason of Buryat migration can be the urge to see other parts of the world, the search for discovery and adventure. The previous study found that the length of residing in the host country is very important (Goldlust & Richmond, 1974). Therefore, the longer the migrants remain in the host country, the greater the chances of them either assimilating or adapting. Migration has acquired a global character today, so it is sometimes called international migration’ or ‘transnational migration.’ As a result of the rising global labor market, more accessible international transportation and advanced communication technologies, many more people are traveling today. Concepts like ‘home’, ‘place’, and ‘belonging’ are discussed during these processes. 2.2.4 The concepts of ‘home’, ‘place’, and ‘belonging’ The concept of ‘home’ is central to the experiences of migrants. ‘Home’ could be what has been left behind at the time of migration, what is thought to be at the arrival of the host country, what is missed and wanted during migration and what is sought upon returning to the homeland. The definition of ‘home’ implies a deep attachment to a place or society that is real or imagined. The definition of ‘home,’ however, is different from person to person, community to community, and context to context (Garivaldis, 2010). Although it is fixed, it shifts during the migration process and duration, often due to the nuances of immigrant’s adaptation to the host country. Furthermore, home can be related to where the individual physically is or to "where the heart is" as an emotional attachment.. 12. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(22) Thus, to grasp the meaning or definition of ‘home’ of the individual, the reasons for migration should be found. For instance, the physical definition of ‘home’ applies to migrants seeking temporary employment abroad, while their home's emotional aspect is returned to their home-country. Yet ‘home’ has a more complex aspect for a permanent immigrant, and it can be the physical place where they live, or the emotional attachment left behind to home country. The level of attachment to each depends on how well the person adapts to the host society. The new environment may, on the other hand, affirm feelings of security and of being ‘at home’ even without any sentimental attachment for refugees who have never let go of their homeland. In this situation, there is a fluctuating emotional state that tries to balance ‘home’ and ‘at home,’ and the time it takes to adapt ultimately depends again on the circumstances and conditions in the host country where the person lives (Massey & Jess, 1996). ‘Home’ and ‘place’ create a sense of belonging in an attempt to establish relations with specific locations, even though that means crossing borders. The experience of moving from one country to another is a complex anthropological reality since identity is a central issue. Bipolar ideas about migrants are identity and place. Therefore, the diasporic identity is established and negotiated according to where individuals belong (Massey & Jess, 1996). It seems that ‘home,’ ‘belonging,’ and ‘place’ are meanings that are interconnected with the notion of ‘homeland’ as a social and physical setting and the related identities that arise from reinforcing or withering ties with it.. 2.3 The Emergence of Transnationalism The notion of "transnationalism" applies to different types of cross-border global relations and involves migrants and scattered ethnic groups (Vertovec, 2001). According to Ostergaard-Nielsen (2001), transnationalism is a term that describes human activities and social institutions that reach across national boundaries, and can play a role in promoting cross-. 13. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(23) border communication. It happens by the presence and use of new technologies that provide a link with the homeland as well as other parts of the diaspora. Technological tools including email, Internet and satellite TV channels help improve knowledge and understanding of the problems and events in both the country and the diaspora, and thus link the two worlds. Therefore, in a broader sense, transnationalism is the thickening of the ties with the homeland between each part of the diaspora and also with the other parts of it. Eriksen (2010) defines transnationalism as a form of migration: “migration is not a single act with a clear departure and an equally clear arrival. Put briefly, many people travel back and forth.” Therefore, transnationalism overlaps with a perception of social identity. As Demmers (2012) stated, the identity of someone depends on the context. This context changes frequently for cross-border migrants who are not tied to a place and whose social identity can therefore take on many different forms (Demmers, 2012). In summary, migrants have a common heritage so that they have a shared ethnic identity to which they may relate; migrants have a common homeland, a common language, and often physical features (Bogers, 2018). 2.3.1 Transnational migration Conversely, modern research studies deal with new approaches to migration in the early sociology of the 1920s-1930, typically concentrating on “the manner in which migrant workers adjust to or are socially excluded from their place of immigration”. While Australian migrant scientific research has explored these issues before almost two decades ago, this new approach explores “attachments migrants maintain to families, communities, traditions and causes outside the boundaries of the nation state to which they have moved” (Vertovec, 2004, p. 574). Given the longstanding relationship between migrants to homelands, the contemporary transnational approach emphasizes many ways in which the relationships that exist today are different or more complex than those that existed in the past (Vertovec, 2004; Portes et al., 1999).. 14. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(24) IDENTITY AND THE NOTIONS OF IDENTITY Identity issue is central to studies of migrant communities and related issues. In adapting and resisting processes of migrants in the host country and living in a rapidly changing world, identity plays a key role. The notion of multiple identities is reinforced by contemporary messages based on distinctions of national social, economic, ethnic, ethnicity, family, gender and sexual orientation. Such identities are created in part beyond the control of the individual, and as interlinked, they contribute to the individual’s overall personal identity. Therefore, it is only natural to express or protect one's own identity, particularly when there is a challenge to personal beliefs and values.. 2.4 Identity The debate of identities tends to have a linkage with the sense of belonging that individuals have to their ethnic and cultural communities (Bekkout, 2015). Identities are often socially referenced in regards to feedback about how they are perceived by individuals from various reference groups (Shotter, 1993, as cited in Kim, Suyemoto, & Turner, 2010). In connection with this feedback, people construct their own identities and make own interpretations. These socially referenced identities, in turn, affect the ways in which individuals enact their identities and interact with referent groups are affected by these identities (Kim et al., 2010). Weinberg (1996) states “identity is multi-faceted,” in that “an individual can identify with more than one group in multiple levels” (as cited in Bekkout, 2015). Iyall Smith (2008) asserts that this identification process appears to distinguish, assimilate or hybridize ethnic groups. Differentiation includes the exclusion process of certain individuals because they are less similar to the dominant group (Vallee, Schwartz, & Darknell, 1957, as cited in Bekkout, 2015). 2.4.1 Social Identity Social identity is the sense of a person based on the membership(s) of their community. 15. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(25) Tajfel (1979) suggested that a big source of pride and self-esteem should be the communities (e.g. social classes, families or football teams, etc.). Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of social world association. In a process of social categorization (i.e. putting people into social groups), we divide the world into the "them" and the "us". Henri Tajfel proposed that stereotyping (i.e. grouping people in groups and categories) should be based on a natural cognitive process: the differences between groups; the similarities of things in the same group. The core forms of identity are unique to every person, but all these identities represent the relationship between individuals and their closest environment. Social identity should therefore be viewed as structured and manifest in many ways. The social context of interaction defines these types. We could therefore conclude that there is one identity with many forms (Ganeyeva, 2008). The core social identities are: . Racial/ethnic. . National. . Religious. . Class. . Gender. . Age. The multilevel theory of identity is based on the "identity matrix" definition that S. Moscovichi (1998) suggests. This concept states that human identity consists of various identifications. In the matrix, information is circulated under the control of an identity or group of identities that dominates at a given moment. The corresponding worldview angle is thus determined.. 16. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(26) 2.4.2 Multiple Identities Due to intercultural interactions and influences, unique cultures change and new identities can therefore be formed which belong to different groups of the community. Cultural media and popular culture are factors which determine identity shaping. The concept of multiple identities is common in culturally diverse societies such as the Russian society. Such identities may be based on family background, cultural heritage, place of birth, religious affiliation or social identification. The acknowledgement that multiple identities are the symbol of the wide range of social affiliations of individuals and of the diversity in the nature of their lives (Moskovichi, 1998), is another guiding principle. The matrix of identity has a social character. The configuration and content depend on societal peculiarities. This depends on the social identity components. It is based on different principles, definitions and guidelines: group (family, occupation, generation, etc.), the physical (appearance, sex, age), political (civil and national), spatial and socio-cultural (language, religion, etc.). It is also based on different identities. The matrix defines the self-identification of the person and involves individual and collective identifications. When the identity matrix is used as an analytical category, the compound structure of the individual (personal) and collective identity can be interpreted as such (Balich & Mukha, 2015). 2.4.3 Collective identity As a result of social interaction and individual recognition of his affiliation to some co mmunity or social group, collective identity is created. This generates the subjective notion (individual perception of collective ideas) of psychological significance to humans. The result of this interaction are: (1) a community of ideas, values and interests; an appreciation of the discrepancies between "us" and "them;" (2) psychological guidelines and behavioral patterns governing relationships with similar and "alien" communities; (3) group solidarity decided by individuals ' personal attachments and directed at preserving the image in the eyes of different 17. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(27) groups, including "alien" ones. Thus, the feeling of empathy for "friends" defines the social behavior of people because, in the same situations, the active feeling-in is a basis for helping or altruistic behaviour. Examples of such collective identities are families, kin, ethnicities and nationality (Melucci, 1995). 2.4.4 Cultural Identity As discussed earlier, culture is the most important shaper of identity. Gans (2003) argues that one's cultural identity stems from cultural nationalism, also known as ethnocultural nationalism, through which group members share a common past and social culture. While cultural nationalism refers to commitment to cultural elements, there is incongruity between cultural nationalism and cultural identity, as cultural identity is based on distinctions between cultures and can separate members of a social group or country rather than unite them. However, the two concepts can coexist or contribute to ambiguity, depending on the view taken; an identity crisis in migrants who struggle between adhering to their host nation's cultural nationalism and having their own distinct bicultural identity. The key factor for one definition which overrides the other can be the culture or country with which one more strongly identifies. National history is, apart from culture, often the basis for identifying, because it can be perceived as undeniable and unchangeable, and consists of national symbols and events connecting individuals of the same race or relationship. Symbolic labeling (e.g. costume, flag or national food) represents social distinction, or the manner in which members of a society decide who the group includes or who is excluded. In multicultural societies, such as Russia, on the other hand, cosmopolitanism provides a sense of global citizenship that provides people with the feeling of being citizens of this world and not necessarily of a specific culture or national origin (Gans, 2003). A research by Smolicz et al. (1998) showed that an individual can either feel or express a number of cultural identities at the same time or when appropriate. Two or more identities. 18. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(28) are in many cases intertwined but conveyed in different ways or actions, like speaking, singing or joking. For instance, sometimes one may feel and identify with their Spanish culture while others may choose to affirm their French or "other" identity (Smolicz et al., 1998). This implies the ambiguity and multidimensional notion of cultural identity and its situational flexibility. Chambers (1994) also promotes the existence of different identities that are often exchanged, recognized and mixed when one lives apart from home. 2.4.5 Hybrid Identity Assimilation demonstrates the decrease in the unique traits of individuals that conform to the prevailing values of the majority of the group (Verkuyten, 2011, as cited in Bekkout, 2015). Hybridization is defined as the estrangement from existing practices in order to adopt new practices which create new cultures and thus, new identities (Iyall Smith, 2008, as cited in Bekkout, 2015). As stated by Iyall Smith (2008, p.5), the hybrid identity “might allow the globe to unite in its differences, to be a truly multicultural society capable of recognizing and reconciling diversity”. This combination of various cultural categories leads to development of new hybrid identities. There are several hybrid identities on which researchers rely to examine how individuals identify themselves, including ‘third space,’ ‘duality,’ ‘borderless’ and ‘gender’ identities (Iyall Smith, 2008, as cited in Bekkout, 2015). 2.4.6 Situational identity Situation identity occurs when a person creates and presents one of the several possible social identities, depending on the situation, whether the religion, ethnicity or lifestyle is a specific option (Cohen & Kennedy 2012). In comparison to the definition of a "fixed identity," the definition of situation identity is flexible. People switch between situational identities easily in the real world. For instance, in certain social situations, a person who is half-Italian half-French may want to associate with. 19. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(29) a specific ethnicity (e.g. in a soccer game). This choice may even be important to his/her personal security.. 2.5 Ethnicity and nationalism 2.5.1 Nationalism A nation is defined as “a named human population sharing an historical territory, common myths and historical memories, a mass, public culture, a common economy and common legal rights and duties for all members” (Smith, 1991, p.14). Anderson (2006) defined nationalism as belonging to an imaginary community or having the feeling of belonging to a nation. ‘Imagined’ meaning that interaction with all the members of this community is far from possible but still has the feeling that all of these members are connected. Nevertheless, this concept has not been present since birth, but it is created through the life of someone. Processes of globalization make connecting people to other nations easier. Migrants come and go, and that is much more complicated to the concept of ‘one’ nationalism. That is why I suggest when debating the idea of nationalism that we have to look at transnationalism across national borders. 2.5.2 National Identity A “feeling of belonging” (Connor, 1998) or “a fellow feeling” (Geertz, 1963), is a psychological connection that ties people of one nation together. These expressions emphasize the close relationship between the individual and the nation or, as otherwise known, the "collective self" (Triandafyllidou, 1998). “National identity describes that condition in which a mass of people have made the same identification with national symbols – have internalised the symbols of the nation ...” (Bloom, 1993, p. 52). National identity implies distinctions among groups. That distinction means that there are ‘others’ who may be other nationals or people who are not part of the same group. Basically, these ‘others’ play an important role in defining the national identity. Thus the national identity, 20. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(30) which includes a ‘member of the community,’ but also an ‘other,’ is described as two-fold (Triandafyllidou, 1998). 2.5.3 Ethnicity The idea of ethnicity often coincides with the definition of identity; in addition, people often speak about ethnic identity. Cohen (1978) characterizes ethnicity as “a set of sociocultural diacritics [physical appearance, nomenclature, language, history, religion, and nationality] which defines a shared identity for members and non-members; a series of nesting dichotomizations of inclusiveness and exclusiveness” (as cited in Bekkout, 2015). Ethnicity can be characterized as the large group of people who share the same characteristics, such as a common language, shared ideas or shared nationality (Erikson, 2010). There are different approaches to ethnicity, such as primordialist and constructivist approaches, as well. Primordialism sees ethnicity as “a communal bond given by nature, as something that is in your blood and, therefore, unchangeable.” (Demmers, 2012, p. 26). This primordialist approach therefore views ethnic groups as essentially different, static and unchangeable. On the other hand, the constructivist approach views ethnicity as socially constructed; “social processes of maintaining boundaries that the people themselves recognised as ethnic.” (Baumann in Demmers, 2012, p. 28). Hence, this approach sees ethnicity as something that is a result of an individual and is therefore dynamic and changeable (Demmers, 2012, p. 28). Throughout my thesis I will use this constructivist approach. 2.5.4 Ethnic Identity Ethnic identity and ethnicity are two similar concepts. But “while ethnic identity can change, adapt, and evolve after arrival [to a new country], ethnicity remains a permanent characteristic of the country of origin” (Constant, Gataullina, & Zimmermann, 2006, p.2). As such, while ethnicity remains with the individual even after they leave their home country, ethnic identity evolves throughout one's lifetime. Findings of the study indicated that, instead. 21. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(31) of ethnicity the social and psychological behavior of immigrants is characterized by ethnic identity (Hazuda et al., 1988). Language, religion, food preferences, media, celebrated holidays and behavior are the most widely used cultural elements for ethnic identity definition (Laroche et al. 2005, Unger and coll., (2002), Phinney, 1992, 1996, as cited in Garivaldis, 2010). Such cultural elements have been used individually or in combination by researchers to assess the ethnic identity of certain ethnic groups or ethnically diverse immigrant groups (Kwan & Sodowsky, 1997; Phinney, 1990; 1992; Laroche et al., 2005, as cited in Garivaldis, 2010). Ethnic identity is the only type of identity not chosen by the person, but dictated by the family one is born into (Phinney & Ong, 2007). Nevertheless, Cokley (2007) argued that ethnicity could also be changed and would require more personal choice than racial identity, due to the difference between the definitions of ethnicity. For example, when the individual's parents are from different ethnic groups, an individual may belong to multiple ethnic groups. Racial and ethnic identities are considered to be continually co-constructed in the sense that individuals and groups acknowledge, dismiss, challenge and negotiate the interpretations of race, ethnicity and racial and ethnic group membership or boundaries (Kim et al., 2010). However, Baden and Stewart (2000) emphasize the importance of separating racial identity and ethnic identity (as cited in Kim et al., 2010). Analogically, although national and ethnic identities often overlap in a lot of ways, however, they are not the same. Nations oftentimes overlap with ethnic groups, but this is not necessarily the case. Researchers presumed that the ethnic identity and national identities of Americans were independent and that they could have positive or negative correlation or can be unrelated (Berry, 2003, as cited in Phinney & Ong, 2007). Another study conducted by Berry et al. (2006) indicate that ethnic identity does not function alone; its implications vary. 22. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(32) according to the identification of individuals with their place of residence. Other studies show that the relationship between ethnic and national identities varies from one ethnic group to another (as cited in Phinney & Ong, 2007). Keddell (2009) indicated that, in cases where individuals belong to several ethnic groups, individuals may either see themselves as not having an ethnic group (usually with a mixture of two white or European ancestors, such as a British and a French ancestor) or individuals may appear to belong to a minority. A belonging to more than one ethnic group can lead to a challenge for the formation of adolescent ethnic identity, as people can have equal commitment to both ethnic groups, which can lead to ethnic confusion and alienation (IsaacsMartin, 2014). In order to measure or compare the ethnic identity of immigrants, the identifiable characteristics used are: a) linguistic; b) visible cultural features; c) ethnic identification; d) ethnic network; and e) migration history (Constant et al., 2006). Immigrants can have a commitment to two different societies. An immigrant may therefore be committed to both the country of origin and the country of residence. Thus, ethnic identity is the extent to which one identifies with a particular ethnic group(s). It refers to one’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group and the part of one’s thinking, perceptions, feelings, and behavior that is due to ethnic group membership. The ethnic group tends to be one in which the individual claims heritage (Phinney, 1996). 2.5.4.1 Components of ethnic identity Phinney and Ong (2007) defined several important components while researching ethnic identity. These components include self-categorization, attachment and commitment, exploration, behavioral involvement, in-group attitude and importance of group membership. Self-categorization and labeling refers to individuals who see themselves as part of a particular group and identify with it (Phinney & Ong, 2007). The ability to correctly name the. 23. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(33) ethnic group is also stated (Byrd, 2012). Individuals from a mixed ethnic background may find it harder to identify with a particular ethnic group. As a result, it will be difficult to label themselves by one ethnic group. Consequently, the difficulty of self-categorization or labeling can affect their formation of ethnic identity (Phinney & Ong, 2007). Commitment is defined as a sense of belonging or a strong preference to some belief or option. Attachment is regarded as the affective aspect of commitment. Exploration is the process through which people look for information and experience their ethnicity (Phinney & Ong, 2007). Search and participation (Syed et al., 2013) are two kinds of research proposed. Search refers to indirect exploration or research practices like reading books or conversing with others. Searching does not necessarily mean that the individual has gained anything from the process. Participation refers to direct cultural experience as a means of exploration, such as attending events and taking part in cultural traditions. Ethnic behavior refers to certain activities and social interactions that the person may participate in related to an ethnic group. This involves speaking a particular language and consuming certain foods. Evaluation and in-group attitudes are the components which relate to the attitude of individuals towards the group to which they belong (Phinney & Ong, 2007), based on their beliefs about the group's characteristics (Byrd, 2012). When individuals have a deep sense of belonging to their ethnic group, it is presumed that they will have a positive attitude towards their group and will feel comfortable belonging to it. The meaning of one's ethnic identity is widely different between individuals and groups (Phinney & Alipuria, 1990, as cited in Phinney & Ong, 2007), with members of ethnic minorities giving greater importance to their ethnicity than members of the dominant majority, which can be referred as importance of group membership.. 24. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(34) 2.5.4.2 Stages of Ethnic Identity Berry (1997) suggests four stages in an immigrant’s journey through ethnic identity: integration, assimilation, marginalization, and separation: “From the point of view of non-dominant groups, when individuals do not wish to maintain their cultural identity and seek daily interaction with other cultures, the Assimilation strategy is defined. In contrast, when individuals place a value on holding on to their original culture, and at the same time wish to avoid interaction with others, then the Separation alternative is defined. When there is an interest in maintaining one’s original culture whilst adapting dominant culture for better interaction, Integration strategy is defined. Finally, when there is little possibility or interest in cultural maintenance (often for reasons of enforced cultural loss), and little interest in having relations with others (often for reasons of exclusion or discrimination) then Marginalization is defined.” (Berry, 1997, p.9). In order to survive in host society, immigrants may experience different journeys. He or she can go across all four states from the "separation" stage, then move to "integration" and then to "assimilation," and finally to "marginalization." This journey is clearly shown in Figure 3 below.. Figure 3. Stages of Ethnic Identity. 25. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(35) 2.5.4.3 Acculturation Berry (1997) refers to all four states, assimilation, integration, marginalization and separation as stages of acculturation. Acculturation is a phase of psychological and cultural change following intercultural communication (Berry, 2003, as cited in Berry et al., 2006). Cultural changes involve changes to the traditions and economic and political practices of a nation. Psychological shifts include changes in the attitudes of people towards the process of acculturation, their cultural identities (Phinney, 2003), and their social behaviors in relation to the groups in contact (as cited in Berry et al., 2006). In this context immigrants either embrace receiving-culture or retain heritage-culture. Those who accept culture can be categorized as integrated and assimilated, while those who protect cultural heritage can be defined as separated or marginalized (Nekby & Rödin, 2010, as cited in Raza, 2018). This process may also have a negative impact, such as the loss of one's ancestral culture, despite the benefits that it may have to immigrants to survive in the host society. The relationship between the states of identity of an immigrant is shown in Figure 3.6.. Figure 4. Acculturation strategies. 26. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(36) 2.6 Diasporic identity Diasporic identity concerns people who live in the diaspora and their identity and connection to their homeland. While some argue about the relationship between culture, people or identity to a particular place (Lavie & Swedenburg, 1996), others argue that there are questions such as ‘where do you come from?’ or ‘what brought you here’ that links the contrasting terms ‘home/abroad’, ‘here/there’, and the concepts of ‘identity’ and ‘place’. Therefore, ‘place’ is of utmost importance and cannot be omitted from any terms or concepts that arise from the word ‘diaspora.’ Personal identity, on the contrary, denoted in the question ‘who / what are you?’ refers to one's personal world, which includes self, family, job, career and other related fields (Rath, 2000). The development of a diasporic identity is a process that can evolve over time, differentiating between individuals. All diasporic identities, however, are the result of the complexity of the diasporic experience. The idea of diasporic identity is fundamentally associated with the concept of home and belonging. Living in the diaspora creates deep feelings in individuals, which are formations of diasporic identity, but only when they are living apart from the ancestral land, followed by feelings of displacement and nostalgia. Thus, identity is not only a result of cultural background but also a connection between the "physical and social environment the home country and the host country," the "other parts of the world and the place of residence," the "us" and the "other." Four major components of diaspora combine to influence diaspora identity are: a distinct language, historical memory, national religion, habitual status of a minority in a larger society. Both the homeland and hostland influence diaspora identity (Safran, 1999).. 27. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(37) 2.6.1 Diasporic hybrid identity “Diaspora hybrid identity results from a mix of characteristics from the homeland, the hostland, and lived experience” (Brinkerhoff, 2009, p.33). In host society, the processes of socialization and integration are significant factors either by exposure, social pressure, or consciously thought. Another factor that influence diaspora identity can be both from defensive and aggressive mechanism or positive and negative perspective of diasporian towards homeland or hostland. Origins of diaspora (reasons of migration) affects the demographic standpoint in religion, ethnic and political differences both within diaspora and between the diaspora and its hometown neighbors (Brinkerhoff, 2009).. 28. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.

(38) CHAPTER 3 CONTEXT AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 3.1 History of Buryats Introduction The territory of "ethnic Buryatia" is composed of several districts (this definition has arisen in the last decades). Buryat ethnic population is located in three administrative units of ethnic type in the Russian Federation: (1) the Republic of Buryatia – the largest and institutionally “the most Buryat” political unit (286,839) (2) Buryat Ust-Orda Okrug – west to Baikal Lake in Irkutsk oblast (77,767), (3) Buryat Aga Okrug (73,941 in Zabaykalsky Krai). Okrug is Russian word for region, district. The two latter administrative divisions are smaller in terms of demography, ethnic population composition and cultural tradition, differing considerably from one another. These three administrative divisions, having nominal status as Buryat territories, are the largest concentrations of the population of Buryats (Nowicka, 2015). Nevertheless, the political, social and cultural situation of Buryats in the Republic, two Okrugs, in Buryat diasporas in Mongolia and China varies substantially. (4) Buryats also live in more scattered communities in South Siberia, in many parts of the country, including Russia's major cities–Moscow (3,000–5,000) and St. Petersburg. In addition, Buryats live in (5) Zabaykalsky Krai in a dispersed way (73,941). (6) Moreover, the northern part of Mongolia (80,000) and China (Inner Mongolia: 20,000–40,000) also include significant communities of Buryat ethnic origin (Nowicka, 2015). Likewise, the Buryat tribes were territorially flexible until recently, that is, to the third decade of the preceding year, roaming; usually going from north to south, but also back to south. During the period of economic reforms introduced by Russian Prime Minister Stolypin (1906– 1911), which hit the economy of Buryat shepherds, migrations to the South accelerated. Then, thousands of Buryats fled to Mongolia and Inner Mongolia (China) amid communist repressions, and in particular, forced collectivization, where they live till now. However, given their fairly good position in the Republic of Buryatia, even in this area, despite the nominal 29. DOI:10.6814/NCCU202000306.