Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity and ethnicity are two similar concepts. But “while ethnic identity can change, adapt, and evolve after arrival [to a new country], ethnicity remains a permanent characteristic of the country of origin” (Constant, Gataullina, & Zimmermann, 2006, p.2). As such, while ethnicity remains with the individual even after they leave their home country, ethnic identity evolves throughout one's lifetime. Findings of the study indicated that, instead

of ethnicity the social and psychological behavior of immigrants is characterized by ethnic identity (Hazuda et al., 1988).

Language, religion, food preferences, media, celebrated holidays and behavior are the most widely used cultural elements for ethnic identity definition (Laroche et al. 2005, Unger and coll., (2002), Phinney, 1992, 1996, as cited in Garivaldis, 2010). Such cultural elements have been used individually or in combination by researchers to assess the ethnic identity of certain ethnic groups or ethnically diverse immigrant groups (Kwan & Sodowsky, 1997;

Phinney, 1990; 1992; Laroche et al., 2005, as cited in Garivaldis, 2010).

Ethnic identity is the only type of identity not chosen by the person, but dictated by the family one is born into (Phinney & Ong, 2007). Nevertheless, Cokley (2007) argued that ethnicity could also be changed and would require more personal choice than racial identity, due to the difference between the definitions of ethnicity. For example, when the individual's parents are from different ethnic groups, an individual may belong to multiple ethnic groups.

Racial and ethnic identities are considered to be continually co-constructed in the sense that individuals and groups acknowledge, dismiss, challenge and negotiate the interpretations of race, ethnicity and racial and ethnic group membership or boundaries (Kim et al., 2010).

However, Baden and Stewart (2000) emphasize the importance of separating racial identity and ethnic identity (as cited in Kim et al., 2010).

Analogically, although national and ethnic identities often overlap in a lot of ways, however, they are not the same. Nations oftentimes overlap with ethnic groups, but this is not necessarily the case. Researchers presumed that the ethnic identity and national identities of Americans were independent and that they could have positive or negative correlation or can be unrelated (Berry, 2003, as cited in Phinney & Ong, 2007).Another study conducted by Berry et al. (2006) indicate that ethnic identity does not function alone; its implications vary

according to the identification of individuals with their place of residence. Other studies show that the relationship between ethnic and national identities varies from one ethnic group to another (as cited in Phinney & Ong, 2007).

Keddell (2009) indicated that, in cases where individuals belong to several ethnic groups, individuals may either see themselves as not having an ethnic group (usually with a mixture of two white or European ancestors, such as a British and a French ancestor) or individuals may appear to belong to a minority. A belonging to more than one ethnic group can lead to a challenge for the formation of adolescent ethnic identity, as people can have equal commitment to both ethnic groups, which can lead to ethnic confusion and alienation (Isaacs-Martin, 2014).

In order to measure or compare the ethnic identity of immigrants, the identifiable characteristics used are: a) linguistic; b) visible cultural features; c) ethnic identification; d) ethnic network; and e) migration history (Constant et al., 2006). Immigrants can have a commitment to two different societies. An immigrant may therefore be committed to both the country of origin and the country of residence.

Thus, ethnic identity is the extent to which one identifies with a particular ethnic group(s). It refers to one’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group and the part of one’s thinking, perceptions, feelings, and behavior that is due to ethnic group membership. The ethnic group tends to be one in which the individual claims heritage (Phinney, 1996).

2.5.4.1 Components of ethnic identity

Phinney and Ong (2007) defined several important components while researching ethnic identity. These components include self-categorization, attachment and commitment, exploration, behavioral involvement, in-group attitude and importance of group membership.

Self-categorization and labeling refers to individuals who see themselves as part of a particular group and identify with it (Phinney & Ong, 2007). The ability to correctly name the

ethnic group is also stated (Byrd, 2012). Individuals from a mixed ethnic background may find it harder to identify with a particular ethnic group. As a result, it will be difficult to label themselves by one ethnic group. Consequently, the difficulty of self-categorization or labeling can affect their formation of ethnic identity (Phinney & Ong, 2007).

Commitment is defined as a sense of belonging or a strong preference to some belief

or option. Attachment is regarded as the affective aspect of commitment. Exploration is the process through which people look for information and experience their ethnicity (Phinney &

Ong, 2007). Search and participation (Syed et al., 2013) are two kinds of research proposed.

Search refers to indirect exploration or research practices like reading books or conversing with others. Searching does not necessarily mean that the individual has gained anything from the process. Participation refers to direct cultural experience as a means of exploration, such as attending events and taking part in cultural traditions. Ethnic behavior refers to certain activities and social interactions that the person may participate in related to an ethnic group.

This involves speaking a particular language and consuming certain foods.

Evaluation and in-group attitudes are the components which relate to the attitude of

individuals towards the group to which they belong (Phinney & Ong, 2007), based on their beliefs about the group's characteristics (Byrd, 2012). When individuals have a deep sense of belonging to their ethnic group, it is presumed that they will have a positive attitude towards their group and will feel comfortable belonging to it. The meaning of one's ethnic identity is widely different between individuals and groups (Phinney & Alipuria, 1990, as cited in Phinney

& Ong, 2007), with members of ethnic minorities giving greater importance to their ethnicity than members of the dominant majority, which can be referred as importance of group membership.

2.5.4.2 Stages of Ethnic Identity

Berry (1997) suggests four stages in an immigrant’s journey through ethnic identity:

integration, assimilation, marginalization, and separation:

“From the point of view of non-dominant groups, when individuals do not wish to maintain their cultural identity and seek daily interaction with other cultures, the Assimilation strategy is defined. In contrast, when individuals place a value on holding on to their original culture, and at the same time wish to avoid interaction with others, then the Separation alternative is defined. When there is an interest in maintaining one’s original culture whilst adapting dominant culture for better interaction, Integration strategy is defined. Finally, when there is little possibility or interest in cultural maintenance (often for reasons of enforced cultural loss), and little interest in having relations with others (often for reasons of exclusion or discrimination) then Marginalization is defined.” (Berry, 1997, p.9).

In order to survive in host society, immigrants may experience different journeys. He or she can go across all four states from the "separation" stage, then move to "integration" and then to "assimilation," and finally to "marginalization." This journey is clearly shown in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3. Stages of Ethnic Identity

2.5.4.3 Acculturation

Berry (1997) refers to all four states, assimilation, integration, marginalization and separation as stages of acculturation. Acculturation is a phase of psychological and cultural change following intercultural communication (Berry, 2003, as cited in Berry et al., 2006).

Cultural changes involve changes to the traditions and economic and political practices of a nation. Psychological shifts include changes in the attitudes of people towards the process of acculturation, their cultural identities (Phinney, 2003), and their social behaviors in relation to the groups in contact (as cited in Berry et al., 2006).

In this context immigrants either embrace receiving-culture or retain heritage-culture.

Those who accept culture can be categorized as integrated and assimilated, while those who protect cultural heritage can be defined as separated or marginalized (Nekby & Rödin, 2010, as cited in Raza, 2018). This process may also have a negative impact, such as the loss of one's ancestral culture, despite the benefits that it may have to immigrants to survive in the host society. The relationship between the states of identity of an immigrant is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 4. Acculturation strategies