2.2.1 Modes and Settings
Interpreting is to translate in an oral form, that is, to listen to a delivery in one language and render it orally into another (AIIC, n.d), thus bridging the gap between language barriers during communication. Two major modes of interpreting are consecutive and simultaneous;
some other sub-categories of interpreting modes include whispered and liaison interpreting (AIIC, 2012). Whereas in the consecutive mode, the speaker would stop at intervals for the interpreter to interpret; in the simultaneous mode, the speaker does not stop for the interpreter’s convenience and the interpreter will have to simultaneously render interpretation upon receiving the speech (AIIC, 2012). Simultaneous interpreters work in a booth where they can hear the speech via headphones and render the interpretation into a microphone (AIIC, 2012). Whispered interpreting, also known as whispering, is a form of simultaneous interpreting that takes place outside of a booth. The interpreter and the listener(s) sit closely together, and the interpretation is provided in a quiet voice (AIIC, 2012). Consecutive interpreting usually refers to the setting in which an interpreter stands right next to the speaker on stage, taking notes during the speech, and then provide interpretation according to the notes. Liaison interpreting also takes the consecutive mode, yet it happens in encounters in which a representative of an institution needs to
communicate with a layperson (Hsieh, 2003).
To categorize interpreting activities by the occasion in which the service is provided, there are conference interpreting and community interpreting. According to the International Association of Conferences Interpreters (referred to as AIIC later in this paper), conference interpreting usually takes place at international summits, professional seminars, and meetings in
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which heads of States and Governments come together for an issue; community interpreting, on the other hand, takes place between institutions and individuals, who are usually immigrants. If different interpreting activities are put on a spectrum, on which one end involves delegates of entities interacting in a multi-national environment on a specific topic, and at the other end, interpreting takes place in a particular community or society where communication needs to be facilitated between an institution and an individual, conference interpreting is closer to the end that was first mentioned, and community interpreting the other (Pöchhacker, 2001).
Definitions of community interpreting vary. The Government Information Office of the Executive Yuan defined community interpreting as interpreting service provided by volunteers to immigrants (Pei, 2011). According to AIIC, some of the characteristics of community
interpreting are: a wide range of working languages, which sometimes includes dialects, the unequal power relationship between institutions and individuals, the usually rushed through interpreting encounter, the cultural awareness and good people skills required for the interpreters (Bowen, 2000). Medical interpreting and court interpreting usually fall into the category of community interpreting. In Tseng’s (2009) research, Church interpreting in Taiwan is viewed as a form of community interpreting; its use of language is unique, the interpreters are usually
volunteers or untrained, and the most used interpreting mode is consecutive. However, church interpreting can actually take on various forms. For example, when a foreign missionary travels abroad, he or she might need a liaison interpreter; in a preaching session, consecutive
interpreting can be an ideal form for it can be carried out without equipment, whereas in some church conferences where consecutive interpreting would take up too much time, simultaneous interpreting should be provided. The fact that on different occasions in church interpreting
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activities, different modes should be applied, and that the power dynamics between the parties involved also differ, it is a little bit premature to say that church interpreting is one kind of community interpreting. The unequal power relationship in community interpreting lies in the fact that the interpreter needs to facilitate a “mutual satisfaction” between the two clients – service provider and service receiver (Merlini & Favaron, 2003). Such power dynamic in community interpreting does not entirely reflect the relationship among the participants of communication or between a speaker and listeners in church settings. It is very often that, in church settings, the interpreter and the participants of communication all belong to the same community or institution – the church – so the client-employer or institution-individual relationship does not apply. Again, given the various characteristics of church interpreting as discussed above, church interpreting cannot always be thought as a form of community interpreting.
2.2.3 Church Interpreting
The Old Testament of the Bible records the first account of the need of interpreting between languages.
“And the whole earth had one language and the same speech. […] And they said, Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower whose top is in the heavens; and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be scattered over the surface of the whole earth. […] And Jehovah said, Behold, they are one people, and they all have one language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; and now nothing which they purpose to do will be kept from them. Come, let Us go down and there
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confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.” – The Book of Genesis (中英對照新約恢復版聖經, 1999)
When people were building for themselves a tower and a city honoring men, Jehovah God confounded their languages to stop their work. To this day, however, for the spreading of the gospel, this language barrier initiated by God needs to be overcome. Cultures and languages should not become a hindrance to the word of God, for “There cannot be Jew nor Greek, there cannot be slave nor freeman, there cannot be male and female; for you all are one in Christ Jesus” – Galatians 3:28 (中英對照新約恢復版聖經, 1999). As such, translators and interpreters play an important role in facilitating this “oneness”. While there are plenteous of research papers discussing the translations of the Bible (Lu, 2012; Yan, 2007), church interpreting has not
received equal weight in the academia (Tseng, 2009).
Interpreting activities, however, are seen in local and international churches around the world. On a blog named “Unprofessional Translation”, many cases of church interpreting were discussed (Harris, 2009). Interpreting activities are also seen in some churches in Taiwan. For example, the Grace Baptist Church in Taipei is equipped with simultaneous interpreting booth;
Hall 3 of the Church in Taipei and the Pearl in Taipei also provide simultaneous interpreting when needed. The most recent study on church interpreting is Hokkanen’s case study on the interpreting activities at Tampere Pentecostal Church in Finland, discussing church interpreting as service and compared it to volunteer interpreting (Hokkanen, 2012). Major research findings suggested that simultaneous interpreting as practiced at Tampere Pentecostal church can hardly be categorized under either community interpreting nor conference interpreting and, instead of
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following interpreters’ rules of conduct as the researcher herself was taught at school, it
emphasized God’s guidance (Hokkanen, 2012). In addition to interpreting skills, the “movement of the Holy Spirit” is critical when interpreting in church meetings (M. Chu, Personal
Communication, 2012). In Pentecostal Churches, God’s guidance is suggested by some outward behaviors such as “speaking in tongues”. This reference is from Acts chapter two. On the day of Pentecost, the apostles were filled with the Holy Spirit and were thus able to speak in dialects or even languages that were incomprehensible. However, behaviors as such are not related to the interpreting service that takes place in church meetings (Hokkanen, 2012). The Local Church is not of the Pentecostal branch; although it does recognize the leading of the Holy Spirit, its members are not found in such outward behaviors that is said to be related to the Spirit’s
guidance. The “emphasis of God’s guidance” and “the movement of the Holy Spirit” in the Local Churches are subjective and spiritual experiences that are hard to be defined with words and measured for research purpose.
Interpreting activities in the Local Church also take on various forms. For examples, in weekly meetings such as the table meetings held every Sunday morning and small group
meetings in weekday evenings, when there are foreign visitors, whispered interpreting or short consecutive interpreting is provided. In the international trainings and conferences held every year, in-booth simultaneous interpreting is available. As Hokkanen’s (2012) case study on the Tempere Pentecostal Church suggested, in like manner, because the modes and settings of interpreting activities in the Local Churches vary, it is hard to determine which end of the hypothetical spectrum Pöchhacker (2001) proposed they are more close to. Depending on difference situations, the positions of the interpreting activities in the Local Churches may shift.
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As such, for the uniqueness of church interpreting, discussing it under the umbrella of either conference interpreting or community interpreting does not do it justice. Church
interpreting is special in that 1) it can take on various forms, depending on the situation, 2) it does not follow the set rules of conduct and does not have a rigid set specifically designed accordingly, and 3) it emphasizes spiritual experience. It is thus appropriate to study church interpreting in its own merit.