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長時間同步口譯對口譯品質的影響 – 以教會口譯為例

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(1)國立台灣師範大學翻譯研究所碩士論文 A Thesis Presented to the Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation National Taiwan Normal University. 指導教授:陳子瑋 博士 Advisor: Dr. Tze-wei Chen. 長時間同步口譯對口譯品質的影響 – 以教會口譯為例. Simultaneous Interpreting in Prolonged Turns: A Case Study of Church Interpreting. 研究生:高霈芬 Advisee: Pei-fen Kao 中華民國一0三年六月 June 2014.

(2) 感謝主。. 謝謝陳子瑋教授,從擬定方向,到論文完稿,陳老師一路細心引導。學業以外,在做人 處事上,陳老師也是很好的榜樣。希望畢業以後還有機會能向陳老師請益、學習、共事。. 謝謝台北市召會劉偉倫弟兄,百忙之中抽空擔任我的口試委員。更謝謝您一路扶持、顧 惜、餵養。. 謝謝「讀書會/玩小孩大會/交通聚會」成員伍宗耀弟兄、伍許愛雯姊妹、伍衣衣、伍伊 勒、戴汝卉姊妹。兩年前伍弟兄帶著主的權柄對我說:「考上了就去念呀!」兩年後我 們才能有讀書會,對彼此的論文提出看法、建議。謝謝戴汝卉姊妹不厭其煩教我跑統計, 跑完統計接下來我們要跑去哪裡呢?. 謝謝台北市召會吳榮芳姊妹、陳奕璇姊妹,西雅圖召會彭以勒弟兄、彭顏庭瑜姊妹,主 聽了你們的代禱。. 謝謝汝明麗教授擔任口試委員,以及兩年的口譯老師。您和陳老師、范家銘老師,是我 學習口譯的啟蒙。雖然我資質弩頓,大師傾囊相授也沒學出個名堂,但總是學出了點心 得、興趣。. 感謝台北市召會高博文弟兄、高劉維美姊妹、陳品瑜姊妹、朱摩西弟兄、翟兆平弟兄。. 感謝師大翻譯所胡宗文教授、鄭永康教授、廖柏森教授、王湘菲、何承恩、裴恩、無私 提供我參考資料的謝忍翾和蘇雅薇,自願幫我買便當的蘇文君,小天使施行一,以及所 有陪伴我兩年的師長、同學。. 感謝劉芝茜、劉恁宣、趙真儀,論文路上,身為過來人,給我寶貴的經驗。. Special thanks to Don Thompson, my recording teacher at Portland Community College, for teaching me how to use DAW, and for being such a wonderful, inspiring teacher.. 在神凡事都能,榮耀歸主。.

(3) Abstract It is not unusual that simultaneous interpreters work in teams. A simultaneous interpreter usually hands over the interpreting task to boothmate after a turn of 15 to 30 minutes. AIIC, the International Association of Conference Interpreters also suggests that a simultaneous interpreter not work for a turn over 30 minutes to prevent cognitive overload. Omissions and silent pauses are two among the many quality indices used to examine interpreting output. The present study aims to examine the omissions and silent pauses in prolonged turns, in the hopes to find out whether, after an interpreter works for the initial 30 minutes, there are changes in the occurrences of omissions and silent pauses. The questions that this research aims to answer are: 1) do omissions and silent pauses increase after the initial 30 minutes? 2) What are some of the characteristics of these omissions and silent pauses? The corpus studied is drawn from the 2012 Winter Training held by the Living Stream Ministry. The results of this research are: 1) omissions did not increase in prolonged turns, 2) juncture pauses tended to increase in prolonged turns, yet no similar pattern is found in silent hesitation pauses, and 3) omissions and silent pauses tended to occur with other disfluencies such as fillers and restarts.. Keywords: church interpreting, simultaneous interpreting, interpreting stamina, prolonged turns in interpreting, turn-taking.. i.

(4) 摘要. 一般而言,會議同步口譯有兩位口譯員合作,一位口譯員翻譯約 15 至 30 分鐘後,由 另一位口譯員接手。為避免認知負荷過重,國際會議口譯員協會 AIIC 亦建議一位口譯員 不宜連續翻譯超過 30 分鐘。漏譯和停頓是口譯品質指標中的兩種指標。本研究冀找出口譯 員工作超過三十分鐘後,漏譯和停頓的變化。本研究欲回答之問題有二。一、口譯員工作 超過三十分鐘後,漏譯和停頓是否會增加?二、研究語料中出現的漏譯和停頓有甚麼特色。 文本分析之語料取自水流執事站舉辦之 2012 年冬季訓練。研究結果顯示:一、此訓練中的 口譯員工作超過三十分鐘後,漏譯並無增加,二、此訓練中的口譯員工作超過三十分鐘後, 段落停頓有增加,遲疑停頓則不一定增加,三、此訓練中的漏譯和停頓時常並隨填充詞和 句子重起等其他品質指標出現。. 關鍵字:教會口譯、同步口譯、口譯耐力、口譯換手、長時間同步口譯. ii.

(5) Table of Contents Table of Contents.................................................................................................... iii List of Tables .............................................................................................................v List of Figures ......................................................................................................... vi Chapter One Introduction.......................................................................................1 1.1 Research Background ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Christianity............................................................................................................. 2 1.1.2 The Local Churches ............................................................................................... 3 1.1.3 Taiwan Gospel Book Room and the Living Stream Ministry ................................ 4 1.1.4 The Winter Training Held by the LSM .................................................................. 5 1.2 Research Scope ................................................................................................................. 6 1.3 Previous Related Studies and Value of Research .............................................................. 8 1.4 Terminology ...................................................................................................................... 9. Chapter Two Literature Review ...........................................................................10 2.1 Bible Translation and the Christian Speech Community ................................................ 10 2.2 Interpreting ...................................................................................................................... 13 2.2.1 Modes and Settings .............................................................................................. 13 2.2.3 Church Interpreting .............................................................................................. 15 2.3 Quality of Interpretation ................................................................................................. 18 2.3.1 What is Quality .................................................................................................... 18 2.3.2 Measure of Quality or Performance ..................................................................... 20 2.3.3 Quality Criteria .................................................................................................... 22 2.3.3.1 Product-Oriented Quality Criteria............................................................. 23 2.3.3.2 Listener-Oriented Quality Criteria ............................................................ 26 2.4 Quality and Stamina ........................................................................................................ 31. Chapter Three Methodology .................................................................................34 3.1 Research Design.............................................................................................................. 34 3.2 Research Material ........................................................................................................... 34 3.3 Research Procedure ......................................................................................................... 37. Chapter Four Results and Findings .....................................................................45 iii.

(6) 4.1 Omissions........................................................................................................................ 45 4.1.1 Numbers of Omissions in Prolonged Turns ......................................................... 45 4.1.2 Omission Categorization ...................................................................................... 47 4.2 Pauses.............................................................................................................................. 60 4.2.1 Number of Silent Pauses in Prolonged Turns ...................................................... 60 4.2.1.1 Silent Hesitation Pauses ............................................................................ 62 4.2.1.2 Juncture Pauses ......................................................................................... 65 4.2.2 Duration of Silent Pauses in Prolonged Turns ..................................................... 67 4.2.2.1 Silent Hesitation Pauses ............................................................................ 70 4.2.2.2 Juncture Pauses ......................................................................................... 72. Chapter Five Discussions and Conclusions .........................................................75 5.1 Omissions in Prolonged Turns ........................................................................................ 76 5.1.1 Location of Omissions ......................................................................................... 77 5.1.2 Re-categorization of Omission ............................................................................ 81 5.1.3 Possible Causes .................................................................................................... 85 5.2 Silent Pauses in Prolonged Turns ................................................................................... 86 5.2.1 Locations of Silent Hesitation Pauses in Prolonged Turns .................................. 87 5.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 91 5.4 Research Limitations and Suggestions for Future Studies ............................................. 92. Reference.................................................................................................................94 Appendix .................................................................................................................99 Appendix 1 English Outlines of the Four Selected Messages .............................................. 99 Appendix 2 Chinese Outline of the Four Selected Messages ..............................................113 Appendix 3 Marked Transcript of Message Three........................................................... 125. iv.

(7) List of Tables. Table 2.1 Speech Disfluencies ..................................................................................................... 28 Table 2.2 Cecot’s (2001) Categorization of Pauses ..................................................................... 29 Table 3.1 The topics, speakers and interpreters, and duration of each session; Conference Title: Crystallization Study of Daniel and Zechariah .......................................................................... 36 Table 4.1 Number of Omissions in Each Turn ........................................................................... 46 Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics on Omission ............................................................................... 47 Table 4 3 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects (Omission) ............................................................... 47 Table 4.4 Types of Omissions in Each Message ......................................................................... 48 Table 4.5 Number of Silent Pauses in Each Turn ...................................................................... 61 Table 4.6 Descriptive Statistics on Silent Pauses ........................................................................ 62 Table 4.7 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects (Silent Pause) .......................................................... 62 Table 4.8 Number of Silent Hesitation Pauses in Each Turn .................................................... 63 Table 4.9 Descriptive Statistics on Silent Hesitation Pauses ...................................................... 64 Table 4.10 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects (Silent Hesitation Pauses)..................................... 65 Table 4.11 Number of Juncture Pauses in Each Turn ............................................................... 66 Table 4.12 Descriptive Statistics on Juncture Pauses ................................................................. 67 Table 4.13 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects (Juncture Pauses) ................................................. 67 Table 4 14 Summed Duration of Silent pauses in Each Turn .................................................... 69 Table 4 15 Descriptive Statistics on Mean Duration of Silent Pauses ....................................... 69 Table 4.16 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects (Mean Duration of Silent Pauses) ....................... 70 Table 4.17 Summed Duration of Silent Hesitation Pauses in Each Turn ................................. 71 Table 4.18 Descriptive Statistics on Mean Duration of Silent Hesitation Pauses ..................... 72 Table 4.19 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects (Silent Hesitation Pauiguesses) ........................... 72 Table 4.20 Summed Duration of Juncture Pauses in Each Turn .............................................. 73 Table 4.21 Descriptive Statistics on Duration of Mean Juncture Pauses .................................. 74 Table 4.22 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects (Mean Juncture Pause) ........................................ 74 Table 5.1 Types of Omissions and Their Effects ......................................................................... 83. v.

(8) List of Figures. Figure 2.1 Perspectives on Quality in Interpreting .................................................................... 20 Figure 4.1 The Number of Omissions per Minute in Each Turn .............................................. 46 Figure 4.2 The Number of Silent Pauses per Minute in Each Turn ......................................... 61 Figure 4.3 The Number of Silent Hesitation Pauses per Minute in Each Turn ....................... 64 Figure 4.4 The number of Juncture Pauses per Minute in Each Turn .................................... 66. vi.

(9) Chapter One Introduction. 1.1 Research Background While there are a number of research papers discussing various aspects of interpreting, few touched upon interpreting as a church service (Hokkanen, 2012). The researcher of the present study used to be attending English speaking church meetings in Taiwan, in which immigrants, though mostly not from the English speaking countries, need to rely on the use of English scriptures and hymns in the gatherings. During a visit to the Church in Seattle WA in 2013, the researcher also discovered that there are at least four language groups in their church meetings: English, Korean, Chinese, and Spanish. The meetings are usually held in English, with one to two interpreters for each foreign language. Small group meetings by language are sometimes held. During the researcher’s two-month visit, a group of Christians from France visited the Church in Seattle and participated in one of the Sunday meetings. One of the visitors knew both English and French and was thus assigned to interpret in that meeting. Church interpreting is important to these immigrants and visitors. Tseng (2009) probed into many aspects of Christian church interpreting in the context of community interpreting in Taiwan, adopting Mikkleson’s definition of community interpreting as “interpreting for ‘residents in a community’”, which includes a church community. Tseng (2009) also showed that church interpreting users generally prefer the consecutive mode to the simultaneous mode. However, the practice of simultaneous interpreting in Christian church gatherings cannot be overlooked. The Taipei Truth Lutheran Church, for example, is equipped with simultaneous interpreting booths; the Church in Taipei and the Pearl in Taipei provide simultaneous interpreting via portable 1.

(10) devices on occasion; yet simultaneous interpreting in Christian church settings remains an under researched area. This research thus aims to probe into simultaneous interpreting as church service in the language pair of Chinese and English.. 1.1.1 Christianity. There are many branches of Christianity, yet all share the central beliefs that 1) God the Father, God the Son and God the Spirit are Three in One, and 2) Jesus Christ is the Son of God, sent to the earth to die for human beings for our sins (BBC, n.d-a). There are, however, some doctrinal and institutional differences among the three major branches of Christianity – Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox – that should not be neglected.. The establishing of Catholic Churches dates back to the fourth century when Constantine the Great unified the Roman Empire. Roman Catholic Church, according to Matthew 16:18, introduced Popes as the authority into the church system and considered Apostle Peter as the very first Pope. Hierarchy is a Catholic tradition and the authority of the Popes is almost on par with that of the Word of God – the Bible. (兩千年教會歷史巡禮, 2007). Also being a branch of Christianity in which hierarchy prevails, Orthodox Christianity, or sometimes called the Byzantine Christianity, embraces a unique way of life and worship, which they consider “orthodox” (BBC, n.d-b). Protestant Reformation marked the onset of Protestianism. In the 16th century, the juncture at which Europe was going through a transformation in politics, economics and education, and that the importance of the Bible was being again emphasized, Martin Luther initiated the Reformation, in the hopes that the Biblical faith and the Apostolic church life can be restored (兩千年教會歷史巡禮, 2007). Protestants are against the strong 2.

(11) Catholic and Orthodoxy hierarchy although clergy system is still seen in most of the Protestant churches. Instead of having Popes as spiritual leaders, protestant churches usually have pastors taking care of church matters.. 1.1.2 The Local Churches Among many protestant Christian groups, the Lord’s Recovery, also known as “the Local Churches” do not associate with any religious organization but recognize themselves as a congregation of followers of Christ, in other words, “members of the universal Body of Christ”. Romans 12:5 reads, “We who are many are one Body in Christ, and individually members one of another (中英對照新約恢復版聖經, 1999)”. The being part of the Body is not based on the identification of any institution but the faith in Christ Jesus. Protestanism is based upon the identification of faith. Its belief is centered on the idea of justification and salvation by faith alone.. The Local Churches was initiated by Watchman Nee (倪柝聲) when he started to gather Christians for meetings in Fuzhou, China in the 1920s. Today, there are more than 2,000 Local Churches around the world, and the churches in each locality are named by the city it is situated, for example, the Church in Taipei, the Church in Seattle and the Church in Anaheim. According to the footnote on 1 Timothy 3:2 of the Recovery Version of the Bible, which was translated by and used in the Local Churches, the wrong teaching of Ignatius in the second century has led to the belief that an overseer should be higher in status than an elder, which in turn brought in hierarchy. In the Local Churches, elders are appointed as overseers for each city and they usually have a full-time job outside of church; there are also co-workers and full-timers, working 3.

(12) full-time at church and some of them might have to travel around the world. In order to work full-time at church, one must graduate from the two-year full-time training that is offered by the Full-time Training Centers in many places worldwide. There are no pastors in the Local Churches.. Despite the fact that there are different positions such as elders, co-workers, and full-timers in the Local Churches, not one position is higher in ranking over the other, and the “functioning” of every member is emphasized (M.-L. Lee, 2013), meaning that church services should not be solely relied on those entitled with a position. This practice is in line with the teaching in Romans 12:4 for just as in one body we have many members and all the members do not have the same function (中英對照新約恢復版聖經, 1999). The “perfecting” of the saints means the educating or shaping of the believers (M.-L. Lee, 2013). In order to function, believers need to be perfected by trainings or simply by being given the opportunities to serve. In principle, anyone who wills to serve will be given the opportunity to “be perfected”. With this premise, not all who are shouldering a specific service are professionals in the field.. 1.1.3 Taiwan Gospel Book Room and the Living Stream Ministry Witness Lee (李常受) continued with Nee’s work and further established Taiwan Gospel Book Room in 1949 (台灣福音書房 60 年, 2010). It dedicated itself in publishing Nee’s writings and hymns until the communist government eventually imprisoned Nee because religious activities were not allowed in mainland China. (台灣福音書房 60 年, 2010). After that, the Book Room started to publish Lee’s writings (台灣福音書房 60 年, 2010). In 1962, Lee. 4.

(13) moved to the United States for gospel work and 1963 saw the publishing of The Stream in the country (台灣福音書房 60 年, 2010). This publishing work later became the Living Stream Ministry (hereinafter referred to as LSM), a Christian organization that publishes and translates – if they were not already written in English – the writings of Nee and Lee (台灣福音書房 60 年, 2010). LSM is based in Anaheim CA, United States. In addition to spiritual publications, LSM also provides a daily broadcast on the Life-Study of the Bible with Witness Lee. It also holds trainings and conferences throughout the year (LSM, n.d). Taiwan Gospel Book Room and the LSM, though not directly affiliated, work closely together in translating the publications of the above mentioned conferences.. 1.1.4 The Winter Training Held by the LSM. Each year, the LSM holds seven international conferences, giving speeches concerning Biblical truth to a congregation consisting of believers from different countries. These conferences are not preaching sessions which announce and preach the gospel to non-believers, but trainings provided to those who are already Christians, for their faith to be strengthened. Winter training, one of the seven conferences, is held in Anaheim, California every winter. The training is usually composed of 12 sessions, each session being about 90 minutes. One session is covered by one speaker. All speeches are given in English, although some of the speakers’ A language is Chinese. Simultaneous interpretation into Chinese, Spanish, Korean and Japanese is provided in all sessions. The outlines of the sessions are usually provided to the interpreters prior to the training (M. Chu, personal communication, 2012). Example of outlines of the training can be found in appendix one and appendix two. Speakers follow the outlines of each session, reading from the outline before going further to explain it or give examples. When the speaker 5.

(14) read from the outline, the interpreter can read from the already translated Chinese version. One single interpreter is responsible for a single 90-minute session. Should there be announcements or time for trainees to come up to the stage and share concerning the message after a 90-minute session, novice interpreters would be given the opportunity to interpret (C. Wu, personal communication, 2014). In a personal interview with interpreter A, a senior interpreter in the Local Church, he pointed out that this practice is to make sure that “the flow of the spirit is not disrupted” (Interpreter A, Personal communication, 2012). When the speaker speaks on stage, the interpreter must not only render the words uttered into another language but also interpret the speakers’ attitude, tone of voice, emotions, and, the most essential element in the Christian faith, spirit (W. Liu, personal communication, 2014). However, it is hard to “measure” whether the spirit is faithfully conveyed in a scientific way. It is a tradition in the Local Church that only when switching to another speaker can interpreters take turn. The concept of not taking turns during the same speaker is not foreign to conference settings as Moser-Mercer also pointed out that to change interpreters while the speaker is still delivering might be disruptive (Moser-Mercer, Künzli, & Korac, 1998). Working for a turn of about 90 minutes is, however, still unusual in international conference settings in which a turn normally does not exceed, at most, 30 minutes (AIIC, n.d ). A simultaneous interpreting setting longer than two hours usually involves two interpreters to take turns, each turn being 20 minutes, to prevent fatigue and information overload (Napier, 2007).. 1.2 Research Scope As an interpreting student at National Taiwan Normal University and an occasional volunteer interpreter at the Church in Taipei, the researcher observed discrepancies between 6.

(15) church interpreting activities and the professional rules of conducts. It was not until the researcher started her master’s program in Translation and Interpretation at National Taiwan Normal University did she learn that it is a common practice that simultaneous interpreters take turns after 30 minutes. It never had occurred to the researcher or any other church interpreting users that she knew of that the quality might deteriorate, and the church interpreters also seem to accept this tradition of interpreting for a session of 90 minutes without complaints. The researcher, having had experience interpreting in church settings, being an interpreting student, and interpreting user at the same time, would like to design accordingly a scientific research to find out about whether this practice causes the quality to decrease.. Working in prolonged turns, i.e. turns that exceed 30 minutes wears out interpreters’ stamina, and is one of the factors that might cause the anxiety of interpreters and thus affect the quality of interpretation. Some other factors such as air quality (Moser-Mercer et al., 1998), speakers’ accent, the speed of delivery, noise, and working time (Lu, 2012) do not fall into the scope of the present study. This study focuses on the correlation between stamina (working in prolonged turns) and performance and quality.. Quality can be examined by text-analysis, but it also has to be based upon users’ evaluations. It could be possible that the tradition of interpreting for 90 minutes at the Local Churches is due to the higher tolerance of church interpreting users instead of the maintained quality in prolonged turns. It could also be possible that church interpreters’ familiarity of topic caused the quality to be stable during the 90-minute sessions. The present study only focuses on text-analysis and assumes familiarity is not a factor that would affect quality, by answering the. 7.

(16) following research questions, hoping to find out whether working for 90 minutes is feasible. The hypothesis of the research is that working for prolonged turns affects performance and has a negative impact on quality. The research questions are:. 1) Are there significant changes in the number of omissions when interpreter works for over 30 minutes? 2) Are there significant changes in the number of silent pauses when interpreter works for over 30 minutes? 3) What are some of the characteristics of the omissions and silent pauses found in the corpus used for this study?. 1.3 Previous Related Studies and Value of Research When doing background research, no paper on church interpreting was found to adopt the text analysis approach and examine the output of church interpreting. No previous study on in-booth simultaneous interpreting in church settings were found, at least in Taiwan, as church interpreting usually happens on an ad-hoc basis or (Tseng 2009) in the consecutive mode. There is a vacuum of research in in-booth simultaneous interpreting in church settings. This research, as the first in Taiwan that probes into in-booth simultaneous interpreting in church settings in the language pair of Chinese and English, by examining the performance of interpreter and the quality of interpretation, will be able to shed some lights on this topic for future researchers.. 8.

(17) 1.4 Terminology -. A language/B language: A language is one’s mother tongue, whereas B language of a person is his/her second (acquired) language.. -. Source text/source language: Source text is the text which is interpreted or translated into another; source language is the language of the source text. These two terms are usually abbreviated as ST and SL.. -. Target text/target language: Target text is the text that is interpreted or translated from another language; target language is the language of the target text. These two terms are usually abbreviated as TT and TL.. -. Saint (聖徒): A saint is a believer in Christ, i.e. a Christian.. -. Brothers and sisters (弟兄姊妹): how believers in Christ call one another.. -. The Spirit (靈/聖靈/那靈): the Spirit of the Triune God; the Holy Spirit.. -. Spirit (靈): Depending on the context, it could mean 1) the spirit of human beings as an organ to receive and contact God, or 2) the mingled spirit of the (Holy) Spirit and men’s spirit. -. Economy (經綸): God’s economy means God’s plan or God’s administration.. -. Message (信息): A message is a speech given in a conference or training, covering a topic.. 9.

(18) Chapter Two Literature Review 2.1 Bible Translation and the Christian Speech Community The translations of the Bible pave way to how members within a Christian community understand one another. People outside of the community often find it hard to understand the “Christian language” for the unique word choice and some other distinguishable characteristics (Mao, 1994). It is thus necessary to allot a section covering translations of the Bible and the uniqueness of the Christian discourse.. The Bible is composed of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Most books in the Old Testament were originally written in Hebrew while the entire New Testament in Greek (Nee & Lee, 1991). Both Testaments are writings from different authors targeted at different readers at the time, yet it is to Christians’ belief that all books together is God’s revealing Himself through appointed prophets and apostles to mankind (Nee & Lee, 1991). The Septuagint is the first translated Bible (Nee & Lee, 1991). It was the Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament. The most authoritative English translation of the Bible is the King James Version, and it is the version which translations into different languages and revisions are based upon. The most widely used Chinese translation of the Bible is the Chinese Union Version – 和合本 (LSM, n.d). Some of the later translations are the Chinese New Version – 新譯本 (first published in 1976), Today’s Chinese Version – 現代中文譯本 (first published in 1979), and the Recovery Version – 恢復本 (first published in 1987). The Chinese New Version emphasizes the readability of the translation; Today’s Chinese Version took a step further and incorporated the idea of “audibility”, which means the translations of the verses have to “sound right” while being read aloud. Both 10.

(19) the Chinese New Version and the Recovery Version include footnotes. In addition to footnotes, the Recovery Version is also known for its outlines for each book, cross-references, and graphs and maps.. In the 1960s, Witness Lee started to give speeches on Biblical truth. Lee would study carefully every verse he was going to quote in the conference, and at where he found the translation dubious, he would study as many references as he could, and then come up with a new translation with footnotes, later printed out for the congregation (M. Chu, personal communication, 2012). Lee’s translations for conferences had laid the foundation for the Chinese Recovery Version of the Bible. In 1986, Taiwan Gospel Book Room started to compile Lee’s translations for the New Testament, and 1987 saw the publication of the first edition of the Chinese Recovery Version of the New Testament (LSM, n.d). Teamwork was very important in translating of the Recovery Version. With the leading of Witness Lee, many scholars from related fields of study labored together in revealing the Word of God (M. Chu, personal communication, 2012). The characteristics of the Recovery version are: 1) staying close to the source text, 2) detailed footnotes, 3) outlines for each book, and 4) consistency in word choice (M. Chu, personal communication, 2012). Staying close to the source text, however, does not mean to transliterate, i.e. to render a word by word parallel version of the sentences. The principle that dominated Lee’s translations was being faithful to the Word of God; in other words, no addition, no omission and no alteration should be tolerated. In Lee’s careful attitude towards God’s Word, the Recovery Version came into being.. 11.

(20) A speech community is a group of people who share linguistic rules, sociocultural views, or presupposition on speech (Mao, 1994). Tseng’s (2009) study pointed out that a Chinese Christian speech community has its unique linguistic style that might sometimes make a non-Christian in such community feel excluded. A Chinese Christian speech community is characterized by the following traits: 1) the use of interjections such as 喔 (oh) and 啊 (ah), as used in “喔!主耶穌!” (Oh! Lord Jesus!) or “主啊!” (“Lord ah” as transliterated, meaning “Oh! Lord!”) , and minimal responses such as 阿們 (amen) and 是的,主 (yes, Lord), expressing agreement, 2) the use of metaphors such as 神是愛 (God is love) and 耶穌是我的 牧人 (Jesus is my Shepherd), 3) the use of many addressee forms to indicate relationships, for example, 天父 (the heavenly Father), 僕人 (servant), and 弟兄姊妹 (brothers and sisters), addressing the many relationships between God and men, among believers, and among the Father, Son, and the Spirit, 4) the use of terms and jargons such as 以馬內利 (Immanuel, meaning God with us) and 交通 (fellowship, meaning communicating or communication) and 5) the excessive use of slogans like 耶穌愛你 (Jesus loves you) and 天國近了 (the heaven is near) (Mao, 1994). Among the five characteristics of Mao’s (1994) findings in the study on Chinese Christian registers, the researcher of the present study would like to point out that the use of Chinese Christian terms and jargons are even more distinctive than its English counterparts. 交通 is an example of this. In general Chinese contexts, 交通 means traffic, while in the Chinese Christian discourse, it means the communication between God and believers or among brothers and sisters (Mao, 1994). However, this word in the English Christian discourse is “fellowship”, which does not pose the same confusion as 交通 does to non-Christian Chinese speakers. 12.

(21) 2.2 Interpreting 2.2.1 Modes and Settings Interpreting is to translate in an oral form, that is, to listen to a delivery in one language and render it orally into another (AIIC, n.d), thus bridging the gap between language barriers during communication. Two major modes of interpreting are consecutive and simultaneous; some other sub-categories of interpreting modes include whispered and liaison interpreting (AIIC, 2012). Whereas in the consecutive mode, the speaker would stop at intervals for the interpreter to interpret; in the simultaneous mode, the speaker does not stop for the interpreter’s convenience and the interpreter will have to simultaneously render interpretation upon receiving the speech (AIIC, 2012). Simultaneous interpreters work in a booth where they can hear the speech via headphones and render the interpretation into a microphone (AIIC, 2012). Whispered interpreting, also known as whispering, is a form of simultaneous interpreting that takes place outside of a booth. The interpreter and the listener(s) sit closely together, and the interpretation is provided in a quiet voice (AIIC, 2012). Consecutive interpreting usually refers to the setting in which an interpreter stands right next to the speaker on stage, taking notes during the speech, and then provide interpretation according to the notes. Liaison interpreting also takes the consecutive mode, yet it happens in encounters in which a representative of an institution needs to communicate with a layperson (Hsieh, 2003).. To categorize interpreting activities by the occasion in which the service is provided, there are conference interpreting and community interpreting. According to the International Association of Conferences Interpreters (referred to as AIIC later in this paper), conference interpreting usually takes place at international summits, professional seminars, and meetings in. 13.

(22) which heads of States and Governments come together for an issue; community interpreting, on the other hand, takes place between institutions and individuals, who are usually immigrants. If different interpreting activities are put on a spectrum, on which one end involves delegates of entities interacting in a multi-national environment on a specific topic, and at the other end, interpreting takes place in a particular community or society where communication needs to be facilitated between an institution and an individual, conference interpreting is closer to the end that was first mentioned, and community interpreting the other (Pöchhacker, 2001).. Definitions of community interpreting vary. The Government Information Office of the Executive Yuan defined community interpreting as interpreting service provided by volunteers to immigrants (Pei, 2011). According to AIIC, some of the characteristics of community interpreting are: a wide range of working languages, which sometimes includes dialects, the unequal power relationship between institutions and individuals, the usually rushed through interpreting encounter, the cultural awareness and good people skills required for the interpreters (Bowen, 2000). Medical interpreting and court interpreting usually fall into the category of community interpreting. In Tseng’s (2009) research, Church interpreting in Taiwan is viewed as a form of community interpreting; its use of language is unique, the interpreters are usually volunteers or untrained, and the most used interpreting mode is consecutive. However, church interpreting can actually take on various forms. For example, when a foreign missionary travels abroad, he or she might need a liaison interpreter; in a preaching session, consecutive interpreting can be an ideal form for it can be carried out without equipment, whereas in some church conferences where consecutive interpreting would take up too much time, simultaneous interpreting should be provided. The fact that on different occasions in church interpreting. 14.

(23) activities, different modes should be applied, and that the power dynamics between the parties involved also differ, it is a little bit premature to say that church interpreting is one kind of community interpreting. The unequal power relationship in community interpreting lies in the fact that the interpreter needs to facilitate a “mutual satisfaction” between the two clients – service provider and service receiver (Merlini & Favaron, 2003). Such power dynamic in community interpreting does not entirely reflect the relationship among the participants of communication or between a speaker and listeners in church settings. It is very often that, in church settings, the interpreter and the participants of communication all belong to the same community or institution – the church – so the client-employer or institution-individual relationship does not apply. Again, given the various characteristics of church interpreting as discussed above, church interpreting cannot always be thought as a form of community interpreting.. 2.2.3 Church Interpreting The Old Testament of the Bible records the first account of the need of interpreting between languages.. “And the whole earth had one language and the same speech. […] And they said, Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower whose top is in the heavens; and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be scattered over the surface of the whole earth. […] And Jehovah said, Behold, they are one people, and they all have one language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; and now nothing which they purpose to do will be kept from them. Come, let Us go down and there. 15.

(24) confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.” – The Book of Genesis (中英對照新約恢復版聖經, 1999). When people were building for themselves a tower and a city honoring men, Jehovah God confounded their languages to stop their work. To this day, however, for the spreading of the gospel, this language barrier initiated by God needs to be overcome. Cultures and languages should not become a hindrance to the word of God, for “There cannot be Jew nor Greek, there cannot be slave nor freeman, there cannot be male and female; for you all are one in Christ Jesus” – Galatians 3:28 (中英對照新約恢復版聖經, 1999). As such, translators and interpreters play an important role in facilitating this “oneness”. While there are plenteous of research papers discussing the translations of the Bible (Lu, 2012; Yan, 2007), church interpreting has not received equal weight in the academia (Tseng, 2009).. Interpreting activities, however, are seen in local and international churches around the world. On a blog named “Unprofessional Translation”, many cases of church interpreting were discussed (Harris, 2009). Interpreting activities are also seen in some churches in Taiwan. For example, the Grace Baptist Church in Taipei is equipped with simultaneous interpreting booth; Hall 3 of the Church in Taipei and the Pearl in Taipei also provide simultaneous interpreting when needed. The most recent study on church interpreting is Hokkanen’s case study on the interpreting activities at Tampere Pentecostal Church in Finland, discussing church interpreting as service and compared it to volunteer interpreting (Hokkanen, 2012). Major research findings suggested that simultaneous interpreting as practiced at Tampere Pentecostal church can hardly be categorized under either community interpreting nor conference interpreting and, instead of. 16.

(25) following interpreters’ rules of conduct as the researcher herself was taught at school, it emphasized God’s guidance (Hokkanen, 2012). In addition to interpreting skills, the “movement of the Holy Spirit” is critical when interpreting in church meetings (M. Chu, Personal Communication, 2012). In Pentecostal Churches, God’s guidance is suggested by some outward behaviors such as “speaking in tongues”. This reference is from Acts chapter two. On the day of Pentecost, the apostles were filled with the Holy Spirit and were thus able to speak in dialects or even languages that were incomprehensible. However, behaviors as such are not related to the interpreting service that takes place in church meetings (Hokkanen, 2012). The Local Church is not of the Pentecostal branch; although it does recognize the leading of the Holy Spirit, its members are not found in such outward behaviors that is said to be related to the Spirit’s guidance. The “emphasis of God’s guidance” and “the movement of the Holy Spirit” in the Local Churches are subjective and spiritual experiences that are hard to be defined with words and measured for research purpose.. Interpreting activities in the Local Church also take on various forms. For examples, in weekly meetings such as the table meetings held every Sunday morning and small group meetings in weekday evenings, when there are foreign visitors, whispered interpreting or short consecutive interpreting is provided. In the international trainings and conferences held every year, in-booth simultaneous interpreting is available. As Hokkanen’s (2012) case study on the Tempere Pentecostal Church suggested, in like manner, because the modes and settings of interpreting activities in the Local Churches vary, it is hard to determine which end of the hypothetical spectrum Pöchhacker (2001) proposed they are more close to. Depending on difference situations, the positions of the interpreting activities in the Local Churches may shift.. 17.

(26) As such, for the uniqueness of church interpreting, discussing it under the umbrella of either conference interpreting or community interpreting does not do it justice. Church interpreting is special in that 1) it can take on various forms, depending on the situation, 2) it does not follow the set rules of conduct and does not have a rigid set specifically designed accordingly, and 3) it emphasizes spiritual experience. It is thus appropriate to study church interpreting in its own merit.. 2.3 Quality of Interpretation 2.3.1 What is Quality. Quality assessment not only varies by evaluator, but is also measured differently in different situations (Grbić, 2008). The perception of interpreting quality may vary by interpreter, speaker, listener, client, colleague and researcher (Pöchhacker, 2001). Pöchhacker (2001) went through many exsisting surveys that probed into quality expectations. He then categorzied the results of these studies by different perspectives and settings. His findings on quality expectations can be summerized as follows. In conference settings, interpreters deem linguistic and general knowledge, voice quality, good health and endurance, and other psychosocial qualities as important quality elements. In community settings, however, interpreters find their job as a cultural mediator. In general and other settings, interpreters find knowledge of language and of migrant culture important, and they also need to be objective, possess socio-communicative skills, be reliable, humble, responsible, honest, and polite. From users’ perspective, community interpreters should refrain from judegemet, possess interpreting skills, translate faithfully, formulate autonomous utterances when necessary, formulate routine 18.

(27) questions and admonitions, be confidenial, be able to point out clients’ lack of understanding, be able to simplize, summarize and explain, be discrete, and be culturally and linguisticlly competent. As the roles of client and user sometimes overlap, it is noteworthy that user expectations may also apply to client expecation in some ocassions; however, clients usually have more concerns on costs than general users (Pöchhacker, 2001). Pöchhacker (2001)’s compiling of quality expectations provides some benchmarks for later researchers to base their studies upon; however, it is still incomplete for it lacks information on users and clients’ takes on conference interpreting quality and definitions of indices were not provided in his research. Summarizing the dfferent perspectives from which quality might be assessed, Pöchhacker (2001) came out with a figure showing the relationships among all these different perspectives, as seen in Figure 2.1. This figure shows that the ST-P (speaker), TT-R (listener), and INT. (interpreter) are the direct interactants in a communication; the clients and colleagues are at additional positions; the researchers are observers from “off-site (Pöchhacker, 2001).. 19.

(28) Figure 2.1 Perspectives on Quality in Interpreting Note. Adapted from Quality Assessment in Conference and Community Interpreting by Pöchhacker (2001) To summarize Tseng’s (2009) findings on church interpreting quality expectations, from church users as well as church interpreters’ perspectives, the presence of the Holy Spirit, matured spirituality of the interpreter, fidelity, completeness, logical coherence of utterance, fluency and terminology are among the most important quality indices. Except the first two indices, these criteria are in line with conference delegates and conference interpreters’ expectations. However, in addition to the quality indices mentioned above, church users and church interpreters also emphasize reliability and the interpreter’s role as a helper, which is more often stressed in community interpreting than in conference interpreting (Tseng, 2009).. 2.3.2 Measure of Quality or Performance. To enhance inter-rater reliability, clearly defined indices and carefully designed methods cannot be overlooked in quality measurement (Pöchhacker, 2001). Finding suitable quality. 20.

(29) criteria for measurement is as important as defining them. To find out indices for quality assessment, in addition to surveys, one way is through experiments. Pöchhacker (2001) suggested that quality aspects be used in experiements as “input variables”. That is to say, to present a group of audience two or more identical interpreted talks on the same speech, with variations on a single supposed quality aspect, for example, the occurance of fillers. Later, the audience will be asked to rate the different renditions, in this case, some with more occurances of fillers and some less. Should the rating of the recordings with less occurrence be significantly higher, fillers can then be suggested as a quality index. Macías (2006) adopted this method. She assumed that silent pauses are associated with poor fluency performance and designed, accordingly, an experiment to test her hypothesis. Macías (2006) provided three video clips of interpreting, all given by the same interpreter on the same speech, with silent pauses as the input variable. She then presented the three clips to a selected group of audience and asked them to grade the renditions on the use of terminology, professionalism, and, of course, fluency. The result of his findings indicates that silent pause more or less suggests a lack of fluency, although the correlation is not significant.. One way to measure quality or performance is corpus-based observation, in which transcripts of interpreting outputs are anylyzed so features such as fillers, errors, or self-corrections can be located (Pöchhacker, 2001). Corpus can be formed either from simulated interpreting or authentic interpreting materials. Yeh (2012) conducted an error analysis based on a simulated interpreting corpus. He designed 30 English sentences as interpreting propositions and then presented them to a group of Taiwanese college graduates who have a degree in English. The students’ Mandarin interpretations of the propositions will then form the corpus of which. 21.

(30) error analysis is conducted upon. Yeh’s (2012) research takes many aspects of errors, such as omissions, substitutions, and additions, into account and gives a full picture of their interrelations. The findings suggest that the cause for mistakes in sentence-by-sentence interpretation might be that the propositions designed were too long, making it hard for the interpreters to memorize and comprehend, resulting in a very high error rate. The results also show a correlation between the occurance of omission and addition, which was counted towards serious error (Yeh, 2012).. 2.3.3 Quality Criteria. Pöchhacker (2001) indicated that the core interpreting quality indices, such as accuracy and fidelity, are product-oriented, and others indices like clarity or, in other words, linguistic acceptibility, stylistic correctness, etc., are of a listener-oriented perspective. This categorization is similar to Shlesinger’s (1997) view that text analysis for interpreting quality has to be conducted on three levels:. - Intertextually – a comparison of the source text and the target text, based on similarities and differences. - Intratextually – as a product in its own right, based on its acoustical, linguistic and logical features. - Instrumentally – as a customer service, based on the target text’s usefulness and comprehensibility. (Shlesinger, 1997). The concept of product-oriented perspective is similar to intertextual perspective because only when comparisons between source text and target text are made can accuracy and fidelity be 22.

(31) monitored. Listener-oriented perspective is more of intratextual and instrumental perspectives for the listeners lack the ability to judge concerning the original speech and its correlations with the interpretation. Listeners can only focus on the products when asked to measure the quality of interpretation.. 2.3.3.1 Product-Oriented Quality Criteria Gerver (1969) and Barik (1971) indicated three types of relationships between the original delivery and its interpretation: 1) omission 2) addition 3) substitution of components (as quoted in Yeh, 2012). The principles dominating the interpreting activities in the Local Churches are in line with these three types. Among the three types of errors, omissions occur the most in all modes of interpreting activities, including sight translating (Yeh, 2012). To get enough incidences for quantitative analysis, this research will thus adopt omission as an index. Omission has not only been used as one kind of error indices in many simultaneous interpreting studies (Grbić, 2008; Su, 2013; Yeh, 2012), but it is also deemed one of the important quality indices in interpreting activities in the Local Churches. In a speech given by B, one of the interpreters from the Local Churches who’s interpreting output will be studied in this research, he encouraged all who wish to interpret in the Local Churches to follow closely to the original text and interpret everything spoken (台大聖經研究社, 2012). In this premise, an examination on the occurrence of omissions in a corpus formed by the interpreting output of the Local Church’s conferences is of great interest.. Omissions in simultaneous interpreting have been studied since when researchers started to pay attention to the quality of interpreting. In the 70s, Barik (1971) used omissions, along with. 23.

(32) additions and substitutions to analyze interpreting transcripts. He defined omission as the content present in the original speech yet missing in the interpretation, and categorized omissions into four groups: skipping omission, comprehension omission, delay omission and compounding omission (Barik, 1971). Skipping omission is omission of a word or a short phrase. Such omission does not alter the structure of the sentence and causes very little loss of meaning. It’s usually omission of adjective or similar qualifying element. Comprehension omission is often the result of the interpreter’s failure in comprehending the speech. This kind of omission contributes to a loss of meaning. Delay omission is similar to comprehension omission. It is caused by the interpreter’s delay in rendering an interpretation and thus fails to “catch up” with new information the speaker utters. Compounding omission occurs when the omitting of some elements results in the “compounding” of other elements; it causes the meaning of the sentence to be altered (Barik, 1971). Yeh (2012) discussed both Barik (1971) and Altman’s (1994) takes on omissions. Yeh (2012) categorized Altman’s omissions into three types: 1) minor omissions that can be compensated by listeners’ comprehension 2) minor omissions that cannot be compensated by listeners’ comprehension and 3) omissions that significantly alter the meaning of the source text, among which the last one is the most detrimental when quality is concerned. Barik (1971) proposed some possible causes for omissions in simultaneous interpreting but was later criticized for merely counting omissions as errors (Yeh, 2012). Omissions in simultaneous interpreting are sometimes strategic. Korpal (2012) discussed omission as interpreters’ deliberate act. Korpal (2012) proposed that English speeches constituting five groups of areas of interests are likely to be omitted by the interpreters deliberately. These five groups are: 1) repetitions 2) redundancies 3) cultural allusions 4) empty fillers/discourse markers and 5) speakers’ subjective assessment (Korpal, 2012). No clear definitions of the five groups were provided in Korpal’s. 24.

(33) (2012) research. However, examples for each group were given:. Repetitions of exactly the same words - Anyway, he persuaded me to write this book. [...] Yeah, so he persuaded me to write this book. - I've received hundreds and hundreds of e-mails, phone calls. [...] Hundreds of e-mails. - I was thirty-five. [...] I was thirty-five then. Redundancies - Ok, I forgot what I was talking about. - In the book it's about eight pages in the whole book out of – give me 5 seconds to check it – 321 pages. Cultural allusions - A typical political book, such as one of the Andrew Young’s political books. - I feel like on Jerry Springer’s! Empty fillers/discourse markers - How shall I put it... - Let’s concentrate on that for a moment. - I know I’m repeating myself now. Speaker’s subjective assessment - The book is really exciting! (Korpal, 2012). These categories are similar to what Barik (1971) called inconsequential, less disruptive, or sometimes even desirable omissions, for example, 1) the omission of sentence connectives such as “and”, 2) fillers such as “well” and “you see”, 3) omission of definite articles, and 4) omission of specification, such as translating “the children” into “they.” Korpal (2012) designed speeches accordingly with the five interest areas he himself proposed to test his hypotheses whether 1) delivery rate, i.e. speed, affects the number of omissions, especially the non-strategic. 25.

(34) ones and 2) student interpreters tend to interpret as much information as possible while professional interpreters tend to omit unnecessary information. The research findings support the first hypothesis, yet the second hypothesis was proved wrong for the students and professionals’ strategic pattern in terms of the use of omissions is similar (Korpal, 2012). Given an abundance of literature on the classifications of omission and omission as an interpreting quality index, not only is there still a lack of consensus on how the omissions should be classified, nor can the proposed categories be completely mutually exclusive. The present research will draw from the classifications of Altman (1994), Barik (1971), Yeh (2012), and Korpal (2012) to find out whether there is correlation between stamina and omissions. However, unlike Korpal’s (2012). approach, the present study will exclude deliberate omissions, hoping. that non-deliberate omissions can present a picture of “quality”. The types of omissions will be more clearly defined for the purpose of this study and non-deliberate omissions will be labeled accordingly.. 2.3.3.2 Listener-Oriented Quality Criteria Fluency is one of the listener-oriented criteria in that it does not deal with comparison between source text and target text. Many aspects of fluency were discussed in papers on both speech delivery and interpreting (Greene, 1984; Mead, 2005). Ahrens (2005), applied the study of prosody to simultaneous interpreting. “Prosody is a phenomenon of spoken language comprising all suprasegmental features that depend on tonal, dynamic and durational parameters. (Ahrens, 2005)” Tonal feature includes intonation and pitch range; dynamic feature includes rhythm; durational feature includes pauses and speech rate. In other words, prosody is related to non-semantic characteristics of speech (Ahrens, 2005). Pause and speech rate are of the. 26.

(35) durational feature (Ahrens, 2005). Based on the English-German interpreting corpus analyzed in Ahren’s (2005) research, the numbers of pauses in the target texts were fewer than that of the source text. However, the average and total length of pauses in the target texts appeared to be longer than that of the source text. The long pauses might be due to the interpreters’ need of more source text input before uttering an interpretation or the cognitive capacity to formulate target text; target texts saw more intonation units than the source text because the interpreters needed to produce interpretation right after they understood a chunk of source text information to prevent cognitive overload. Accentuation-wise, it was found that almost every single word was stressed in the target texts. Ahren’s (2005) research indicated that long pauses might be related to interpreters’ cognitive capacity, and, in that premise, the present study wishes to further explore the correlation between pauses and stamina.. Bakti’s (2009) research on disfluencies in simultaneous interpreting was based on the studies of speech production and speech disfluencies. Bakti (2009) cited Gósy’s (2004; 2005) disfluency criteria and used them to examine the quality of simultaneous interpreting. Gósy’s (2004; 2005) categorization of disfluency (as cited in Bakti, 2009), was compiled by the researcher of the present study as Table 2.1. Pauses were categorized as uncertainty disfluencies along with hesitations, fillers, repetition, restarts and lengthening. All the indices under this category are not of linguistic problems, unlike error-type disfluencies. Bakti’s (2009) study aimed at answering two questions: 1) what are the most frequent disfluencies found among student and professional interpreters, and 2) what malfunction do these disfluencies represent in a speech. The result of the study showed that, in the English-Hungarian corpus of the researcher’s select, restarts and grammatical errors occurred the most and they represented. 27.

(36) morphological and syntactic planning problems, lexical coordination and articulatory problems. Although Bakti (2009) did not have specific findings in terms of pauses, his adopting Gósy’s (2004; 2005) categorization indicates that he agrees that pauses is a negative prosodic feature in simultaneous interpreting, affecting fluency.. Table 2.1 Speech Disfluencies Type Uncertainty disfluencies Example Hesitations Fillers Repetition Restarts Lengthening Pauses. Error-type disfluencies Freudian slips Grammatical errors Contamination False word activation Tip of the tongue Change Ordering problems Slips Note. Compiled from Speech Disfluencies in Simultaneous Interpretation by the researcher of the present study. Pause as a type of speech characteristics, whether deemed negative, was discussed by Ahren (2005) and Batik (2009). Ahren (2005) defined pause as “interruptions in the acoustic signal in speech flow”, while Bakti (2009) did not provide a definition for pause. Both papers indicated that there are two kinds of pauses: silent (unfilled) and voiced (filled) and they both can be signs of hesitation. Although silent pauses in a speech are sometimes planned or tactic, used to place emphasis, or occur as part of the structure of an utterance, too many silent pauses can still interrupt listeners’ comprehension (Ahrens, 2005). Macías’ (2006) research findings, which was discussed more in details in previous section, also support this view.. Cecot (2001) drew from previous pause studies and came up with a pause categorization as in Table 2.2. The “non-fluencies”, i.e., fluency interruptions, in the table include unfilled. 28.

(37) (silent) pauses and disfluencies. Not to be confused with Gósy’s (2004; 2005) definition (Bakti, 2009), of which the word “disfluency” refers to all fluency interruptions, Cecot’s “disfluencies” refer to only voiced elements, such as filled pauses, consonant lengthening and false start, that interrupt fluency. Cecot (2001) made distinctions between “communicative pauses” and “non-communicative pauses”. Communicative pauses include initial décalage, segmentation pauses, and rhetorical pauses, whereas non-communicative pauses are non-grammatical hesitation pauses (Cecot, 2001).. Table 2.2 Cecot’s (2001) Categorization of Pauses. Note. Adapted from Pauses in Simultaneous Interpretation: A Contrastive Analysis of Professional Interpreters' Performance, p. 70, by M. Cecot, 2001, The Interpreters’ Newsletter. The different types of communicative pauses in the table are further explained as follows. Initial décalage occurs at the beginning of a sentence to either capture listeners’ attention or is used by the interpreter for cognitive reasons (Cecot, 2001). Segmentation pauses mark grammatical junctures (Cecot, 2001). Rhetorical pauses, though not always occur at grammatical junctures, are employed with awareness to place emphasis (Cecot, 2001). The communicative 29.

(38) pauses in Cecot’s (2001) study were termed “juncture pauses” or “junction pauses” by Boomer and Dittmann (1962).. Boomer and Dittmann (1962) pointed out the distinctions between silent hesitation pauses and silent juncture pauses. Pauses that occur in the syntactic position of “terminal junctures”, that is, between speech segments, are called juncture pauses, and what are left are called hesitation pauses (Boomer & Dittmann, 1962). Their experiment aimed at finding the differences between these two types of pauses in terms of duration. The results of their experiment suggest that the threshold duration for juncture pauses is higher than that of hesitation pauses. In other words, a silent pause following a terminal juncture would be noticed by a subject if its threshold was somewhere between 500 and 1,000 milliseconds, while for hesitation pauses the threshold is 200 milliseconds (Boomer & Dittmann, 1962). In Su’s (2012) study on cognitive process during pauses in interpreting output, she summarized Lounsbury (1954), Boomer and Dittmann (1962)’s distinctions between juncture pause and hesitation pause. Both research pointed to the notion that juncture pauses occur at the “boundary” or “terminal juncture” (Korpal, 2012). The present study will analyze the occurrences of both juncture pauses and hesitation pauses for discussion. Due to research constraints, only silent pauses will be analyzed. Filled pauses, however, will also be marked on transcripts for supplementary discussions.. Macías’ (2006) research on silent pauses as an interpreting quality criterion indicated that there is a “lack of consensus in the literature regarding both the quantitative analysis (frequency and duration) of pauses and their qualitative analysis (position in the utterance, type,. 30.

(39) and function)”. It is thus appropriate to examine pauses as a quality index based on listeners’ perception (Macías, 2006). Tissi (2000) pointed out the difficulty in choosing a silent pause cut-off time for measurement because different yardsticks were used in past studies. On a research about silent pauses and disfluencies in simultaneous interpreting, Tissi (2000) adopted a cut-off time of 0.25 seconds as suggested by Grosjean (1973) and Deschamps’ (1975) studies. Su (2013) adopted a 200ms cut-off time as Boomer and Dittman (1962) suggested that a silent pause shorter than that is hardly perceived by a listener. Macías’ (2006) research marked all silent pauses longer than 0.25 seconds; however, she also mentioned that the pauses shorter than 2 seconds in duration, though noticeable to listeners’ ears, are not likely to be perceived negative. This study thus uses the cut-off time of 2 seconds, based on listeners’ perception of negative silent pauses.. As much as previous research suggests that pauses can be used as a parameter to examine the quality of interpretation, pauses or other objective parameters alone cannot give us a full picture of quality unless coupled with the examination of content (Mead, 2005). Thus, this research will adopt silent hesitation pauses, along with the of omission, as quality indices, in the hope to get a thorough idea of the quality of the selected material from both product-oriented and listener-oriented perspectives.. 2.4 Quality and Stamina There are many variables that would affect the quality of interpretation, for example, speaker’s accent, speed of delivery, the working environment… etc. Fatigue is one of the factors that might yield to a poorer quality.. 31.

(40) Moser-Mercer et. al (1998) conducted a study on prolonged turns in simultaneous interpreting. An experiment is designed in which interpreters need to interpret for more than 30 minutes. Subjects were asked to stop interpreting whenever they feel that they could no longer handle the task and thus yield to a poor performance. Interpreters’ performance after a turn of 30 minutes is discussed in three aspects: quality of the interpreted text, the physiological condition of interpreter and the psychological condition of the interpreter. The result of the text analysis showed that working prolonged turns puts the quality in jeopardy. The quality indices used their research are contre-sens (rendering an interpretation that is of an opposite meaning), faux-sense (rendering something different from the source text), nonsense (an interpretation that makes no sense at all), imprecision (not rendering all of the original meaning), omission, addition, hesitation, correction, grammar and vocabulary. Interpreters’ physiological stress was also monitored in the study. The study showed an increase of the level of Cortisol and immunoglobulin A, the hormones indicating stress, at 30 minutes, while a decline at 60 minutes. The researchers pointed out that this might be due to the interpreters’ carelessness after they had passed a certain limit when working, an explanation to why the stress hormones decreased during the turn from 30 minutes to 60 minutes. Psychological stress was studied by questionnaires to the interpreters and the findings, although not of significance, correspond to the physiological test. In the first 30 minutes, their stress emotions tend to increase, while in the prolonged turns they started to care less as they experienced cognitive overload (Moser-Mercer et al., 1998).. 32.

(41) To conclude, Mercer-Moser et. al proved that working for over a turn of 30 minutes would yield to a poorer quality and also affect an interpreter’s working attitude. In addition, an interpreter having worked for a prolonged turn does not seem to be able to notice that the quality deteriorates, or at least, overlooks how it is poorer than the first turn of 30 minutes for some interpreters did not stop interpreting at the point where text analysis already shows a decrease of quality.. “Turn-taking” is thus important in simultaneous interpreting activities for it prevents an interpreter from working for too long. Turn-taking happens in dialogues when one finishes speaking and anther one starts (Napier, 2007). In consecutive interpreting, lengths of turns determine whether an encounter is “long consecutive interpreting” or “short consecutive interpreting”, thus affect the interpreter’s working strategies. Simultaneous interpreting requires high concentration, thus it is advised that interpreters take turns with boothmate to prevent from fatigue and cognitive overload (Napier, 2007). AIIC recommends that interpreters take turns of approximately 30 minutes because their job requires multi-tasking (AIIC, 2012). Moser-Mercer et al.’s (1998) study on prolonged interpreting turns’ effects on quality also adopted the 30-minute benchmark. Although in conferences nowadays an interpreter usually takes turns every 15 to 20 minutes, in some cases it is still possible for the speaker to go up to 60 minutes (Moser-Mercer et al., 1998), which might result in an interpreter’s working a prolonged turn (Moser-Mercer et al., 1998). Some other literature suggested 20 minutes as the ideal length of a turn (Napier, 2007). The present research, basing on the findings of Moser-Mercer et al. (1998), aims to prove that working for a turn longer than 30 minutes is against interpreter’s performance and quality of interpretation.. 33.

(42) Chapter Three Methodology. 3.1 Research Design Many indices have been used to examine the quality of interpretation, the most commonly used being omission, addition, and substitution for error analysis, and, from user perspectives, fluency is an important criteria. This study will pick omission and silent pauses as quality indicators, hoping that, from both text-analysis point-of-view and user expectation approach, a picture of quality of the material analyzed can be shaped.. The method of this study is a corpus-based analysis on four interpreted speeches from the 2012 Winter Training held by the LSM. Summarized texts of the recordings of the interpretations were published by the LSM and Taiwan Gospel Book Room. Missing details were added by the researcher of the present study and two other transcribers. Omissions and silent pauses will be marked on the transcripts. Each interpreted speech will be divided into segments of 30 minute to see whether there is change on the number of omissions and silent pauses after the interpreter had worked for over the first 30-minute-turn. This design is used to test the hypothesis that working for a prolonged turn is detrimental to performance and thus sacrifices quality.. 3.2 Research Material The material used in this research is the 2012 Winter Training held in Anaheim, California. The topic of the training is the Crystallization Study on the Books of Daniel and. 34.

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