To get the users’ values, which are objective and qualitative, Gutman(1982) proposed a qualitative method, Means-End Theory. The theory specifically focuses on the linkages between the attributes, which are equated with characteristics of a product (the "means"), the consequences from consumers provided by the attributes, which are more abstract, and these elements reinforce the personal values (the
“ends”) (Leitner et al., 2008). Values represent motivational constructs and desirable goals that are directly tied to human emotions (Reynolds, & Olson, 2001).Thus, through the means-end approach, researchers can understand the meaning that (product) attributes bring to users.
Attributes Consequence Values
2.5.1 Skills for attaining values
The means-end approach begins with the interview, that is personal, individual, in-depth, semistructured, and first developed by Hinkle (1965). Generally speaking, the interview is first prompted to identify salient attributes by asking participants to distinguish alternative choices among several products. By asking “Why is this important to you?”, interviewees can figure out why these characteristics are important to participants, and these questions can be repeated as many times as needed to reveal the abstractive level, when no further level of abstraction is possible, will end up on the level of personal values (Barrena, & Sánchez, 2010).
It’s notable that sometimes participants simply do not want to talk about their
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personal emotions and refused to reach a certain level of abstraction. At this point, not every chain can end up in a value (Olson, & Reynolds, 1983). But most of the time, each abstractive level can be further broken down into sub-levels. Walker and Olson (1991) suggest there are six levels in the means-end chain, shows in Table 2-2.
1 concrete attributes The desired characteristics of the products.
2 abstract attributes The attributes of the product that cannot be checked prior to consumption
3 functional consequences The benefits that consumers can directly experience with the product.
4 psychological consequences The consequences which are more social and personal.
5 instrumental values The intangible goal that consumer take actions to achieve it.
6 terminal values The desired end states.
Table 2-2 six levels of the means-end chain
The three lower levels, concrete attributes, abstract attributes and functional consequences, are direct knowledge from products. On the other hand, the three higher levels, psychological consequences, instrumental values and terminal values, are the knowledge and cognition from consumers themselves.
2.5.2 Hierarchical Value Map
Then after summarizing all the elements and connections from the laddering, researcher can construct the hierarchical value map (HVM), which is graphically present all the relation in a tree diagram. When constructing the relation, researcher should consider that if A —> B and B—> C and C —> D, then a chain A-B-C-D is formed (Reynolds & Gutman, 1988).
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2.5.3 Related works
There exist several studies on identifying users’ values by using means-end theory. Leitner et al. (2008) applied this method to discern direct and indirect links in the field of mobile multimedia. They let participants choose the device
characteristics, which are important to them, as the attributes, and then started with these attributes to find out consequences and values. By building ladders, it helps to show dependencies between these elements and how users experience their device.
However, Abeele and Zaman (2009) wanted to figure out which computer game controller, Steering Wheel or Classic Controlle, can meet participants’ values.
Differing from other studies, it is rather likely that a participant starts his ladder by listing functional consequences, rather than mentioning attributes. Thus, they can know which attribute can cause the consequence that is important to user, and related to what kind of personal values. In this case, the interviewer should make sure that a participant first climbs down the ladder (from functional consequence to concrete attribute) before climbing up the ladder. Instead of asking “Why?”,
climbing down the ladder is done by asking “What caused this?”
The structure of the laddering shows below:
It’s Easier (FC) ->I’ll be More experienced (FC) -> It has same layout as PlayStation controller (CA) ->I am can Perform better (PSC) -> I want to win (IV) -> I want to be the best (TV).
Although the two studies started the laddering from different status, but both of them attained the values from existing attributes of target products, which can elicit the attributes that are linked by values as design factors in the future.
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2.6 Summary
Based on the literature review and case study in this chapter, we had an initial understanding of the recent studies of wellness and values, as well as the
technologies in mobile computing. In the following chapters, through the interviews, the study will investigate users’ values regarding the Means-end approaches towards wellness design.
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Chapter 3
Methodology
The health consciousness has been rising that people have gradually tended to take the physical activities to maintain healthy living style. With the development of applications, designers have tried to combine the wellness issues with mobile devices.
In this newly competitive market, the best way to deliver a good user experience is to determine what users really need and what they really care.
The objective of this thesis is to explore users’ values in the wellness through a systematic user study process.In this chapter, the study presents the way to go through the process that the proposed results will help designers to understand the context and the users they design for in the area of mobile HCI.