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southeast China and spoke the language varieties of the provinces of Fujian (15%), Chekiang (浙江, 9%), Guangdong (8%), Hunan (湖南, 8%), and Kiangsi (江西, 4%), as their mother tongues.52
In the beginning, the Mainlanders were generally regarded as a socially and politically privileged group, despite the fact that some of them were also distributed at the lower level of the society. With Mandarin functioning as the lingua-franca and unifying force, they as a powerful minority eventually form a distinct ethnolinguistic identity quite different from the other ethnic groups. As a consequence, the mainlanders in the early years rarely made any effort to learn Hoklo or Hakka.
However, with Taiwan dramatically going through a number of political, economic, and social changes, the Mainlanders and their descendants gradually became bilingual in Mandarin and Hoklo or Hakka. Today the Mainlanders account for approximately 13 % of the population.53
3.2 Language Varieties in Taiwan
Generally speaking, there are four major language varieties in Taiwan: Hoklo, Hakka, Mandarin, and aboriginal language varieties. However, this thesis regards Taiwan Guoyu as one language variety despite the fact the Taiwan Guoyu speakers are declining.
3.2.1 Hoklo Language
Hoklo language, the first Chinese language variety spoken in Taiwan, is also called Minnan Hua (閩南話), Taiyu (台語) or Taiwanese. It was originally composed
52 Van den Berg, Marinus E. 1986. Language and Language Use in Taiwan: A Study of Language Choice Behavior in Public Settings. Taipei: Crane Publishing Co, p. 46.
53 Feifel, Karl-Eugen. 1994. Language Attitudes in Taiwan - A Social Evaluation of Language in Social Change. Taipei: The Crane Publishing Co., Ltd, p. 29.
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of two main dialects spoken in Changchou and Chuanchou districts of Fujian province of mainland China. Nonetheless, these two dialects have been continuously influenced by local characteristics of different places in Taiwan. Today the Hoklo language variety spoken in Taiwan is a mixture of Changchou and Chuanchou dialects coupled with local Taiwanese influences. The Hoklo speakers nowadays are prone to identify themselves as a single ethnolinguistic group regardless of different dialects that they use.
Today there are four major Hoklo dialects in Taiwan: Southern dialect (南部腔), Northern dialect (北部腔), Hai-kou dialect (海口腔), and Nei-pu dialect (內埔腔).
Southern dialect, which carries more Changchou influence and is the dominant Hoklo dialect in Taiwan, ,mainly spreads from Zhoushui River (濁水溪) to the south of Taiwan except coastal areas. Tainan (台南) dialect is representative of Southern dialect. Northern dialect, which carries more Chuanchou influence, mainly spreads from Zhoushui River to the north of Taiwan. Taipei (台北) dialect is representative of Northern dialect. Hai-kou dialect, called Chuanchou dialect in the beginning and originally came from Chuanchou and Tung-an (同安) in Fujian, is distributed in the places where rivers and ocean meet, such as Tamshui (淡水), Shalu (沙鹿), and Lugang ( 鹿 港 ). Nei-pu dialect, which still retains characteristics of traditional Changchou dialect, can be found in Yilan (宜蘭), Chiufen (九份), Keelung (基隆), and Taoyuan (桃園).54
Hoklo language variety in Taiwan has been influenced by other language varieties such as Japanese and Mandarin. Traces of foreign influences could be easily found in some Hoklo pronunciations, terms and grammar. Scholars are now working on the standardization of Hoklo, and a lot still needs to be done.
With so many unique influences and developments, the Hoklo spoken in Taiwan
54 Refer to http://www.lhvs.tn.edu.tw/mina5/p4-5.htm
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has transformed into a special kind of language variety, which is quite different from that spoken in where it originated.
3.2.2 Hakka Language
Hakka language is not mutually intelligible with any of the other local language varieties in Taiwan. Because of the different origins of the Hakka people in Taiwan, the Hakka language variety can be classified into six dialects: Sze Hsien (四縣腔), Hai Lu(海陸腔), Ta Pu (大埔腔), Shaon An (詔安腔), Rao Ping (饒平腔), and Yung Ting (永定腔).55
Sze Hsien dialect is mainly spoken in Taoyuan, Miaoli (苗栗), Pingtung (屏東), and Liu Tui (六堆) in Kaohsiung (高雄). Hsinchu (新竹) and some areas of Hualien (花蓮) are where the Hai Lu dialect speakers concentrated in. Ta Pu and Shaon An dialects distribute in Tung Shih (東勢) in Taichung (台中) and Lun Pei (崙背) in Yunlin ( 雲 林 ) respectively. Rao Ping and Yung Ting dialects are sporadically distributed in Taiwan.56
Unlike Hoklo language variety or Mandarin, Hakka language variety neither has a large number of speakers nor is it enjoys high public support. Thus, the waning of Hakka language variety is predictable. To adapt themselves into the society as minority language speakers, many Hakka have become bilingual or even multilingual in Hoklo language variety and/or Mandarin; but ironically, Hakka language variety is rarely learnt as a second language throughout Taiwan.
The decline of Hakka language variety is relatively slow in Taoyuan, Hsinchu, and Miaoli since these three areas enjoy relatively more demographic strength;
55張民光，2003 年，The Status Quo and Future Trend for Hakka Dialect in Taiwan，聯合技術學院聯 合學報第 23 期，第二頁。
56 It is difficult to have a precise account of the distribution of Hakka accents nowadays because of frequent moving of people. Thus, here I only briefly introduce representative places with representative accents.
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however, Hakka language variety is hardly heard except these three places. Among the six dialects, Sze Hsien dialect has the strongest influence. And it will not pose a great challenge to preserve Hai Lu dialect since its speakers are densely populated in Hsinchu. Shaon An and Rao Ping dialects are in the most danger of disappearance since they exist in areas with low Hakka density and thus have few opportunities of exposure.
3.2.3 Mandarin
Mandarin is mostly known as Guoyu (國語), which literally means national language, by Taiwanese people. Although originated from northern China, it is often believed that the standard Mandarin in Taiwan today has developed its own uniqueness in writing systems, accents, terminologies and pronunciations, which make it quite different from the Mandarin, called Putong Hua (普通話), in mainland China.
Before the promotion of Mandarin by ROC, Mandarin was virtually unknown to most Taiwanese people. To establish legitimate rule over Taiwan, the ROC government harshly promoted Mandarin as a symbol to cultivate a sense of Chinese nationhood and, above all, to de-Japanize and re-Sinicize the Taiwanese people. As a consequence, when the ROC rule began, the majority of the population, including a large number of Mainlander immigrants that originated from places where Mandarin was not spoken natively, was forced to acquire Mandarin as a second or even third language.
During the early period of promoting Mandarin, Mandarin was still a minority language variety. Therefore, influences from local language varieties such as Hoklo and Hakka became inevitable. Nowadays, it is widely agreed that Mandarin has lost its original flavor.
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It goes without saying that the post-war language policy designed to promote and spread Mandarin was overwhelmingly successful. At present, most of the people in Taiwan could communicate in Mandarin, both in speaking and writing forms. It is still the major language in education, mass media, and most of the public domains.
Although a number of mother tongue courses have been provided at schools, these local language varieties are still unable to challenge the dominant status of Mandarin.
In addition, the language use in Taiwan is inclined to exhibit a stratified pattern determined by age. The older generation predominantly communicates in their mother tongues; the middle generation uses both mother tongues and Mandarin; the younger generation primarily uses Mandarin. Furthermore, people in Taiwan today generally associate Mandarin with better education, higher socio-economic status, and more opportunities for upward mobility when compared with Hoklo, Hakka, and aboriginal languages.
3.2.4 Taiwan Guoyu
Strongly influenced by Hoklo pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, Taiwan Guoyu is a type of Mandarin spoken with conspicuous Hoklo characteristics. Unlike the other local language varieties, Taiwan Guoyu is intelligible to Mandarin speakers.
Although it is not considered a formal language variety, it is still worth mentioning since it is unique in Taiwan.
Taiwan Guoyu is mostly spoken by native Hoklo speakers who did not or were unable to learn Mandarin well when they were young due to the linguistic differences and mutual influences between Mandarin and Hoklo. Taiwan Guoyu is usually associated with Hoklo people, poor education and low socio-economic status. It is considered vulgar by the public, and thus people in Taiwan generally look down upon or make fun of Taiwan Guoyu and its speakers.
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Nowadays, with better Mandarin education, Taiwan Guoyu has become rare except in the older generation.
3.2.5 Aboriginal Languages
Each of the fourteen officially recognized aboriginal groups in Taiwan has its own language. These aboriginal languages are known as Formosan groups in Taiwan, and Yami (Malayo-Polynesian language) of Orchid Island. The use of these languages is highly restricted since the population of each aboriginal group is quite small.
Aboriginal people growing up in the environment filled with Mandarin and Hoklo speakers, the new generation has become more fluent in Mandarin and Hoklo than their mother tongues. Besides, Mandarin and Hoklo have served as the intergroup communication tools.