2.1 The Korean Experience
2.1.2 The Korean Education Experience
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2.1.2 The Korean Education Experience
The Japanese annexed Korea as a protectorate in 1910, and as soon as they did they introduced similar educational goals and directives that were to be found in Taiwan. Like their Taiwanese counterparts, the Koreans were to be educated for a modern world of work, and like in Taiwan, any kind of higher education for at least most of the population was actively discouraged. Like the Taiwanese, the Koreans were to become loyal, obedient subjects of the empire as well. Like the system in Taiwan, the Korean educational system aimed to broaden and strengthen basic elementary schooling.
Despite their best efforts in Korea and Taiwan, the educational system that they ended up with was a poor copy of the educational system found in Japan. Like in Taiwan at the beginning of the colonial period in Korea, some allowances were made to Chinese style schools and Confucian scholars were granted some accommodation and leeway. The ordinary schools were like the common schools that were found in Taiwan at the time, secondary public and higher educational systems shared many of the same properties that were also in Taiwan.
This chapter will argue that it was ideology that influenced Japanese educational policies in Taiwan, especially the use of Japanese as the language of instruction in common schools. Taiwan became a colony of Japan when the Chinese lost the Sino-Japanese War in 1895. When the Japanese first arrived in Taiwan there were no clear goals or directions regarding what colonial polices were to be implemented on the island. Between the years 1895 to 1897 the Governor Generals of the island were more preoccupied with pacification of the Taiwanese rebels on the island. When Governor-General Kodama Gentarō arrived in 1852 1852, one of his first tasks was
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to implement concrete colonial policies. Japanese colonialism in Taiwan can be divided into three distinct and separate eras: 1898-1918 Gradualism; 1919-1936 Assimilation; and finally, 1937-1945 Japanization. When the Japanese acquired Taiwan, they knew very little about its culture or languages. The local Taiwanese did not know what their future under Japanese control would be like either. There were attempts at resisting the Japanese at first and the short-lived Taiwan Democratic Nation was one such attempt. (Fewings: 2004:9) This move towards Taiwanese independence lasted only eleven short days. For the first five months of Japanese occupation of the island there were scattered attempts at resistance, but the Japanese eventually prevailed. Li Hung-chang who represented the Ching government during the signing ceremony of the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895 tried to warn the new Japanese government that the Taiwanese were difficult to manage and well beyond the control of Chinese civilization. (Fewings: 2004:9: 2004:9)
Taiwan’s colonial and imperial past is long and varied; one group of settlers after another claimed the island as their own, even though the Austronesian speaking peoples had already colonized the island for over 8 000 years. Spanning the centuries starting from the Dutch to Koxinga and the later, Ching Dynasties, the Japanese, and the Kuomintang all have shaped the sense of Taiwanese identity and nationality. Taiwan has never been an easy island to rule and there have been major uprisings and rebellions over the years. Japanese colonial policy advocated an official plan of assimilation and loyalty to the emperor.
The various groups that had come to occupy Taiwan the Hakka, Han Chinese and the indigenous population had over the years several feuds and disputes over land. Between the years 1683 to 1895 there were a total of fifty-two conflicts between the various factions on the island. After nearly two centuries of Chinese rule law and order was never fully established on the island.
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During the early years of Japanese rule there were several incidents and unrest on the island. As the saying went: unrest every three years, an uprising every five years. This is the situation that the Japanese found themselves in when they took control over the island in 1895. When Governor General Gentarō arrived in Taiwan he instituted oppressive measures to bring the rebels under Japanese control and with his powers of passing legislation for the colony he effectively had the power to implement laws in Taiwan.
2.2 Taiwan2.2 Taiwan under Japanese Colonialism
The local Taiwanese reacted negatively to the change in government at first. Some of them felt betrayed by the mainland and many were both shocked and dismayed by the recent changes. When the Japanese first arrived, there were isolated rebellions against the new rulers, but all these uprisings were eventually put down by the Japanese. By all accounts Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan lasted a long time, Japanese colonial rule lasted some 50 years in Taiwan from 1895 to 1945. The local Taiwanese came to find themselves cut off from the mainland and all contact with Chinese culture and traditions and eventually came to the realization that their situation may in fact become permanent.
There is little doubt that for the most part colonial rule in Taiwan was harsh, but there were several benefits that the Japanese introduced into the island. The Japanese constructed better communication systems, roads and railways were built and hospitals and schools were built. The Japanese introduced new and improved agricultural techniques as well as a public health program that benefitted all Taiwanese. (Simpson: 239) In the area of educational reform the Japanese introduced an island wide system of elementary schools which eventually had the highest enrollment rate in all of Asia. There were several benefits brought by colonial rule, but there were
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also negative consequences as well. Although officially recognized as Japanese citizens the local Taiwanese were often discriminated against especially in the employment arena. Many found it impossible to get high ranking jobs in the government, education or the state-run industries. All major posts within these organizations went to newly arriving Japanese citizens. (Simpson: 239)
In 1895 the Ching Dynasty was defeated by the Japanese army which had recently become modernized and because of this loss the Chinese ceded the island of Taiwan to the Japanese Empire after the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The Japanese made every effort to assimilate the Taiwanese population and make them as much as possible like Japanese citizens. During the 1930s these assimilation policies became more widespread by effecting the culture and language spoken by the Taiwanese. The people were encouraged to adopt Japanese family names and culture and follow the Japanese state religion Shinto instead of local Taoist religions. Japanese language practices were promoted over local Southern Min and Hakka dialects and aborigine languages.
Japanese colonialism is seen as an administrative dependency; they were not part of a mass migration but acted as administrators over an already existing population. Imperialism and Colonialism are different sides of the same coin. Imperialism can be described as the forceful extension of a nation’s authority by territorial conquest establishing economic and political domination of other nations that are not its colonies. It is the domination of one people over the other.
We have admirably transformed this chaotic situation, restored peace, established order, realized financial independence, attended to the development of natural resources, promoted industrialization, and secured the livelihoods and properties on this island…The reason for our distinguished record in colonization is the result of the Japanese race’s unique ability to rule another people and our skill in colonial management. It also speaks
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to the grand efficacy of managing a tropical colony.
Tōgō Miroru and Satō Shirō, Taiwan skokumin hattatsushi [The development of colonial Taiwan], 1916
In Becoming Japanese Colonial Taiwan and The Politics of Identity Formation, Leo Ching (Ching:
2001) adds to the discourse on Taiwan’s post-colonial situation. He argues that Japan’s aggression was to unseat the Chinese dominance over Korea and southern Manchuria. No actual wars were fought in Taiwan or in Japan for that matter. Taiwan’s annexation to Japan was part of the “new imperialism” where western nations sought to claim any unclaimed territories in the world. This created the modern colonial system. Japan could ill afford the luxury of the acquisition of Taiwan;
it was an” imperialism without capital.” Large expenditures at the beginning of the Japanese period were a nuisance and a heavy burden to the Japanese. The Japanese considered selling Taiwan or giving it back to the Chinese. The Japanese were not accustomed to running a colony. Taiwan was their first colony and was a model for further expansion in the area. Korea too eventually became a Japanese colony, but its colonial experience was different to the Taiwanese. Many in Taiwan still have a fondness for all things Japanese, food, culture, and language.
The Japanese in the pre-war period were motivated by the desire to expand their territory in order to gain access to resources in neighboring territories. The Japanese colonized Taiwan (1895-1945), Korea (1910-1945), Micronesia (1914-1945), China (1931-1945) and southeast Asia (1942-1945) in such areas as the Philippines, Malay/Singapore, Indonesia, Burma and other areas in the region.
In the time that has passed since Japan colonized these regions little research has been conducted into the area of actual Japanese rule, especially in linguistic imperialist policy that the Japanese pursued.
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The main goal that the Japanese were concerned with was to use cultural/ educational policies to linguistically, culturally and morally Japanize the local population by means of school education.
Two of the main instruments of Japanese colonial policy in Taiwan were education and assimilation of the island’s native (Chinese speaking) Taiwanese population. Assimilating the native population was one of their most important goals and how they achieved this goal was through education. The Japanese ruled Taiwan for a period of 50 years from 1985 to 1945. During this period Taiwan’s rulers changed and modified their views of assimilation and accordingly changed their educational policies as well. From the very beginning of Japanese rule on the island the government had intended to use education of the islander’s as a major tool in its assimilation policy. The policy was consistent in nature but not a static one.
2.3 Gradualism
The first period of Japanese colonialism is often referred to as the Gradualism Policy 1898-1918.
From 1895 until the arrival of Gentarō there were three successive Governor-Generals before him.
It is hard not to believe that with so many Governor-Generals that implementing any kind of consistent polices on the island were difficult. (Fewings: 2004: 12)
The Japanese colonial government established a Taiwanese language course at the Kokugo Gakkō or National Language School. Both Taiwanese and Japanese languages were studied at the school.
In 1901, Gōto Shimpei established the official Rinji Taiwan Kyukanshu Chōsaki or, or the Provincial Taiwan Old Customs Investigation. The association’s main goad and purpose was to study existing Taiwanese customs and practices. Such areas as private Taiwanese law and practices, Qing administration, aboriginal affairs, the economics of the island as well as land management
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were all studied in the association. Between the years 1903 to 1914 the Japanese published a total of eleven reports all together. Gōto Shimpei’s policy of gradualism dominated Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan all the way up to his departure from the island in 1905. After Shimpei’s departure Inazo (1862-1933), Minoru 1959), Rokusburō (1867-1923) and, and finally Ryūtaro (1881-1944) all had a hand in shaping colonial policy in Taiwan.
2.3.1 The Naitai Yūgō Naichi Enchō Policy 1919-1936
From 1898 onwards, a Japanese- Taiwanese segregated education system was established by the Governor-General. Kōgakkō or common schools were established for local Taiwanese students, while Shōgkkō or elementary schools were established for Japanese students. (Fewings: 2004: 19).
By 1907, the first high schools exclusively for use by Japanese students were established. By 1915, there were no high schools for Taiwanese students. Local Taiwanese parents had few options open to them; one of them was open to rich parents though. They could afford to send their children to Japan for further educational opportunities. The colonial government feared that these children would return with so-called “corrupted minds” and realize just how inequitably they were being treated by the colonial educational system. There were some positive outcomes by this realization, by 1915 the Taichū Chugakkō was established in Taiwan with private funding and became the first public high school on the island.
Japanese assimilation policies were introduced in both Taiwan and Korea and were based upon the Japanese’s belief that these three peoples were dōbun dōshu, or shared a common script, were of the same race and all shared a common cultural (Chinese) heritage. (Fewings: 2004:21) The Japanese assimilation policies goals and intentions were to create harmony between the colonizer
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and the colonized but the intention of enhancing the status of the latter. This self-justified policy where Japan would have the role of parent and believing in their cultural and ethnic superiority would lead her inferior siblings to betterment. This ideology would go a long way in explaining later Japanese aggression and expansionist policies in Asia and would help set up Taiwan as a base for further expansion into the South East Asian region.
2.3.2 The Kōminka Movement 1937-1945
With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 Taiwan experienced a further intensification of Japanese assimilation polices from the years 1937 to 1945. Taiwan’s strategic importance soon became apparent to the Japanese and as the war lingered on Taiwan was to become a base for further expansion into the South East Asian region. (Fewings: 2004:24) When the Kōminka Movement was established on the island the Taiwanese were to be transformed into loyal subjects of the emperor and be mobilized for war at any moment. The first Taiwan Kyōiku Rei (Taiwan Education Ordinance) was issued in 1919 and its main goal and purpose was in cultivating imperial subjects and was to become the ultimate principal for public education in Taiwan. When the Kōminka Movement was introduced all Classical Chinese teaching came to a stop and was eventually disallowed all together in all common schools and in newspaper columns as well. All Taiwanese style of dress and clothing were banned as was indigenous opera. The goal of this movement was in effect to erase all traces of Taiwanese ethic consciousness and to disconnect them from their traditional way of life. The most striking feature of this movement was religious reform that was carried out throughout the island. Jimyō or religious reforms aims were to build a Shinto shrine in every village in the country, Chinese deities were destroyed, and temples were converted into language education centers. This policy of religious reforms was eventually
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abandoned by the eighteen Governor-General of the island, Kiyoshi (1883-1970).
Kaisiemi Undō or name changing policy was aimed at wiping away all sense of Taiwanese consciousness as well; the Taiwanese were encouraged to take on Japanese family names instead of Chinese ones. The Japanese language was held as the essence of being Japanese and to think and act like the Japanese it was believed that the local population should think and speak like the Japanese. And to that end in 1895 the Japanese colonial government placed great value on the education of the Taiwanese in Japanese. From 1898 and onwards with the establishment of common schools or Kōgakkō for the education of Taiwanese students and until 1922 when the Japanese/Taiwanese segregated system of education was abandoned Japanese language instruction made up to 50 percent of the curriculum for Taiwanese students.
Taiwan became the first place where Japanese language instruction was first promoted overseas through government efforts. Japanese language instruction was to play an important role in Japanese education as outlined in Kokka Kōiku or the national educational policy introduced by Izawa Shuiji (1851-1917). (Fewings: 2004:29)
Taiwan was Japan’s new colony and great emphasis and value was placed on cultivating loyal citizens of the empire and this was to be accomplished through Japanese language instruction and education. Japanese language education was to become a focal point for colonial education in Taiwan and over time came to dominate Japanese socio-cultural policies that the colonial government introduced on the island.
In 1905, the Japanese colonial government conducted its first census and found that 76 percent of
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the population was made up of Hoklo speaking peoples who had originally migrated from the Quan and Fukien provinces in China as early as the seventeenth century. These peoples traditionally resided in the agricultural areas of the island, while the Hakka speaking population who had migrated to the island later came to settle in the hills of north-western, central and south-western regions of Taiwan. For the arrival of these new comers the Austronesian speaking peoples lived on the island for millennium. The Japanese had conducted an anthropological study on these peoples and had placed them into nine different groups. Besides the indigenous peoples and the Hakka, Taiwanese or Southern Min was the dominant language on the island at the time. Japanese speakers were in fact the minority, they comprised of 2.1 percent of the population.
Izawa Shūji was the Japanese government’s appointed educator responsible for education in Taiwan during the early colonial period. Shūji educated in the United States became a strong supporter and advocate of Kokka Kyōiku or national education which had emphasized the cultivation of loyal imperial subjects through the use of Japanese language education. The concept of national education had its roots in Meiji Japan and was used in nation building in Japan. When Izawa came to Taiwan he brought with him his new ideals for educational reform based upon the model that he introduced in Japan after his arrival back from America. (Fewings: 2004:29)
2.4 The beginnings of Japanese language teaching in Taiwan
The new leaders of Japan had travelled to Europe and North America at the beginning of the Meiji period and came to realize that widespread education was an important factor that made these societies strong. (Tsurumi: 1984:275) The new leaders concluded that education in Japan needed to be modernized if Japan was to take its place as a great power. Japan needed to train elites in
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technical and managerial skills that would be needed to direct policy and the economy. At the end of the Tokugawa period many commoners and the samurai saw learning and schooling as a force for material as well as spiritual betterment. The samurai were among the first of the elites that were to be trained, but unlike the situation they found in the west lower orders were trained as well.
Japan at the end of the nineteen century saw the introduction of a number of changes in its society,
Japan at the end of the nineteen century saw the introduction of a number of changes in its society,