Chapter 2. Literature Review
2.4 Confucius Institute (Organization; Critics)
2.4.1 Hanban (Confucius Institute Headquarters)
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Institutes and 52 Confucius Classrooms in Asia; 38 CIs and 10 CCs in Africa; 144 and 384 in America; 149 and 153 in Europe; 17 and 49 in Oceania. It means that in total there are 443 Confucius Institutes and 648 Confucius Classrooms in the world. According to Xinhua (2006), Hanban is planning to open 1000 CI by 2020.
According to Zhe (2012), one of the main reasons of the creation of the Confucius Instates is the rapid increase in numbers of those who study Chinese. People become more in more interested in this language due to many reasons: e.g. the economy of the PRC is developing rapidly, and many people realize that if they start learning Chinese it could increase their chance to get a good job in the future. Others just like the Chinese culture itself and are interested in that mysterious difficult language which requires a lot of effort if you really want to master it. If we take a look at the information provided by Hanban, we will see that over 40 million foreigners are studying Chinese39. And China has to satisfy the increasing demand.
2.4.1 Hanban (Confucius Institute Headquarters)
In July, 2004, the Chinese government proposed five-year plan for Chinese language education abroad under the name of “Chinese Bridge project”40. The main purpose of the establishment of this institution is to become a representative of the Chinese culture (p. 33). Its aim was to promote Confucius Institutes overseas in order to boost learning of Chinese language and culture (Yang & Tamney, 2012, p.50). Hanban is the organization that supervises the institutes and comprises the representatives from 12 state ministries and commissions (Zhe, 2012): The General Office of the State Council;
The Ministry of Education; The Ministry of Finance; The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council; The Ministry of Foreign Affairs; The State Development and Reform Commission; The Ministry of Commerce; The Ministry of Culture; The State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television; The State Press and Publications Administration; The State council Information Office; The State Language Council.
The Hanban itself performs the following functions:
1. To make policies and development plans for promoting Chinese language internationally;
39 『 國家漢辦主任稱 ： 4000 萬外國人熱衷學漢語 』 ， 搜抓新聞 ， 2009 年 03 月 13 日 ，
http://news.sohu.com/20090313/n262768846.shtml
40 漢語橋工程 (Hanyu qiao gongcheng)
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2. To support Chinese language programs at educational institutions of various types and levels in other countries;
3. To draft international Chinese teaching standards and develop and promote Chinese language teaching materials41.
According to the information on Hanban’s official website42, it is also responsible for the following activities:
1. To make development plans and set down establishment and evaluation criterion for Confucius Institutes;
2. To examine, approve and establish Confucius Institutes;
3. To examine and approve annual project proposals, budgets and financial statements of Confucius Institutes worldwide;
4. To guide and evaluate the teaching activities and to control the quality of the operation of Confucius Institutes;
5. To provide Confucius Institutes around the world with the support and services of teaching resources;
6. To select and dispatch Chinese directors and teaching staff to Confucius Institutes, to offer training programs for the management teams and teachers of Confucius Institutes;
7. To organize annual Confucius Institute conferences.
Although Hanban is responsible for sending teachers of Chinese language to the overseas Confucius Institutes, local Chinese teachers can also work there. However, they as well as those who might give lectures on various topics at the CIs should bear in mind that such issues as Tibetan independence, the status of Taiwan, the fourth of June 1989 at Tiananmen Square, Falun Gong and universal human rights are not the best topics to discuss within this institution. China established the CI to promote its positive image on the international arena, not vice versa.
In April, 2007 Hanban created a Confucius Institute Headquarters in Beijing. It is registered as a non-profit organization (NPO) with corporate status. All expenses for the Confucius Institute Headquarters and for its work of expanding the institute’s activities overseas are covered by the state. Thus, as Zhe (2012) states, it is only an NPO de jure, and it can be described as a quasi-governmental organization that strongly reflects government views.
41 About Hanban. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://english.hanban.org/node_7719.htm#
42 Ibid.
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According to the "Constitution and By-Laws of the Confucius Institutes", the Confucius Institute Headquarters is governed by the Council. The Council consists of the Chair, the Vice Chairs, the Executive Council Members, and the Council Members.
Among the fifteen Council Members, ten shall be the Heads of the Board of Directors of Confucius Institutes overseas43.
The following are the duties of the Council:
1. Examining and approving the development strategies and plans of global Confucius Institutes;
2. Formulating and amending the Constitution and By-Laws of the Confucius Institutes;
3. Examining and approving annual reports and working plans of the Headquarters;
4. Discussing issues of significance concerning the development of Confucius Institutes44.
The Council shall assemble once a year, called by the Chair. When needed, the Chair may decide to call for provisional Council Meetings or Executive Council Member Meetings. Under the leadership of the Council, the Confucius Institute Headquarters carries out its own daily operations. The duties include:
1. Formulating development plans, criteria for the establishment of Confucius Institutes, and assessment standards for the Confucius Institutes;
2. Examining and approving applications for the establishment of new Confucius Institutes;
3. Examining and approving the implementation plans of annual projects, annual budgetary items, and final financial accounts of individual Confucius Institutes;
4. Providing guidelines and making assessments to activities carried out by Confucius Institutes, supervising their operations and doing quality assurance management;
5. Providing support and teaching resources to individual Confucius Institutes;
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.
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6. Selecting and appointing directors and faculties from the Chinese side for individual Confucius Institutes, and training administrative personnel and instructors for these Confucius Institutes;
7. Organizing Confucius Institutes Conferences annually;
8. Constituting regulations and institutions for the management of the Chinese funds. 45
Speaking of budget, Hanban and the local partner are covering the expenses for the institutes on a 1:1 basis. 46 If the overseas CI wants to hold any activity, it should first agree its action and approximate budget with Hanban and see whether it would approve it or not.
In order to support the development of Confucius Institutes, facilitating international promotion of Chinese language and dissemination of Chinese culture, as well as cultivating qualified Chinese-language teachers and excellent Chinese-language learners, Hanban launched a “Confucius Institute Scholarship” programme to sponsor foreign students, scholars and Chinese language teachers to study Chinese in relevant universities of China. This programme was established in 2009. By end of 2014, near 25 000 applicants from 150 countries have been funded to study in China.47
According to the information on the Hanban website, Confucius Institute Scholarship is divided into 6 categories:
1. Scholarship for Students of Master's Degree in Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages (MTCSOL);
2. Scholarship for Students of One-Academic-Year + MTCSOL;
3. Scholarship for Students of Bachelor's Degree in Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages (BTCSOL);
4. Scholarship for One-Academic-Year Students;
5. Scholarship for One-Semester Students;
6. Scholarship for Four-Week Students.
Applicants shall be non-Chinese citizens in good health, aged between 16 and 35 (Chinese language teachers in post shall be aged below 45, and applicants for BTCSOL scholarship should be aged below 20).48
45 Constitution and By-Laws of the Confucius Institutes. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://english.hanban.org/node_7880.htm
46 Ibid.
47 Scholarships. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://english.hanban.org/jxjen.htm
48 Ibid.
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Scholarship winners are exempt from tuition, accommodation fees on campus, and are provided with monthly living allowance (except Four-Weeks Scholarship Students) , and comprehensive insurance for foreign students studying in China. Monthly living allowances are provided at the following rates (CNY Yuan per month):
a. CNY 2,500 for Bachelor’s Degree Students ,One-Academic-Year Students and One-Semester Students.
b. CNY 3,000 for Master’s Degree Students.49
“Every year from the issue date of the Procedures, applicants can log on to the Confucius Institute Scholarship website at http://cis.chinese.cn, set up an individual account, read information and introduction of host institutes and majors, complete and submit the Confucius Institute Scholarship Application Form online.
Confucius Institutes (independently set-up Confucius Classrooms), overseas Chinese test centers, educational and cultural offices (sections) of Chinese Embassies (Consulates), host institutes and institutions of higher education in those countries with no Confucius Institutes are entrusted by Hanban as the recommending institutions. The recommending institutions shall examine the qualification and application materials of applicants.”50 2.4.2 Organization of the Confucius Institutes
Confucius Institutes are operated by Hanban in conjunction with universities in China and local partner institutions abroad. According to Zhe (2012), there are three categories of CIs based on the different natures of their relations with the partners:
1. The CI is operated along with a foreign university, which provides a location and facilities, while a Chinese university supplies the faculty and classroom materials (the majority of CIs are of this type, e.g. The CI at Moscow State Linguistic University);
2. The CI is operated along with a public or social organization overseas.
Again, the overseas part provide a location and facilities, and the Chinese part provides the faculty and classroom materials. (The example with the partnership with a public organization is the Chicago CI operated jointly by the Chicago Public School Office of Language and Culture Education
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid.
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and Shanghai’s East China Normal University (ECNU)51. The CI at the China Institute52, created jointly by the New York-based China Institute in America and the ECNU, is an example of a CI run in conjunction with a social organization).
3. The CI created and operated along with foreign corporations and target Chinese language students in the world of business. (E.g. London’s CI for Business. Funding for it has come from several multinational corporations including British Petroleum, Deloitte, HSBC. Tsinghua University53 and London School of Economics54 oversee its educational activities and operation.
According to paragraph 11 of the Constitution and By-Laws of the Confucius Institutes, the most important objectives and services provided by the Confucius Institute are:
1. Chinese language teaching;
2. Training Chinese language instructors and providing Chinese language teaching resources;
3. Holding the HSK examination (Chinese Proficiency Test) and tests for the Certification of the Chinese Language Teachers;
4. Providing information and consultative services concerning China's education, culture, and so forth;
5. Conducting language and cultural exchange activities between China and other countries55.
2.4.3 Debates and Concerns
Despite its rapid development, the Confucius Institute is facing a lot of challenges in nowadays world. As Zhe (2012) states, the most serious issue are concerns of the foreign countries that China by using the CI as a cultural tool might impose its influence
51 It is a comprehensive research university in Shanghai, China. Established in 1951, it is the first national normal university of the People's Republic of China.
52 It was founded in 1926 and is the oldest bicultural organization in America devoted exclusively to China.
53 It is a research university established in 1911 and located in Beijing, China. In both domestic and international university rankings, Tsinghua University has consistently been ranked alongside Peking University as the top institution of higher learning in mainland China.
54 It is a public research university located in London, England which specializes in social sciences, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It was founded in 1895.
55 Constitution and By-Laws of the Confucius Institutes. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://english.hanban.org/node_7880.htm
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on people. Zhe gives Japan as an example, saying that the government of the country is highly concerned about the influence and the expansion of the CIs, that is why it does not allow any state-run university to open the CI. All 13 Confucius Institutes in the country are affiliated to the local private universities.
Professor Ding in his book “Dragon’s hidden wings” (2008) in chapter named “To Build a “Strong” Language” is speaking about so called “linguistic imperialism” which was introduced by Robert Phillipson in 199256. It can also be called as “language imperialism”. According to the information on Encyclopedia Britannica, “language imperialism involves the transfer of a dominant language to other peoples. The transfer is essentially a demonstration of power--traditionally military power but also in the modern world economic power--and aspects of the dominant culture are usually transferred along with the language”57. It can be assumed that some countries might be afraid that with the rapid expansion of the Confucius Institute all over the world Mandarin Chinese could replace English as the new Universal Language at least in the Far East region. That is why Ding (p.125) states that Beijing’s efforts to popularize Chinese could be viewed “as a form of hard power wielding, imposing its cultural values on others”.
In June, 2014 an article named “The Debate Over Confucius Institute” appeared on ChinaFile website58. In this article a number of the American Association of University Professors expressed their point of view on the Confucius Institutes. There were so many reflections, that the article had to be divided into two parts. It turned out that the main concern of the majority of people is the fact that Confucius Institutes are sponsored by “an arm of Chinese state” (the euphemism for Hanban) and they are conflicting with academic freedom and traditions. Many professors say that unwillingness of the Chinese government to speak about Tiananmen, Tibet, Taiwan and other sensitive issues which undoubtedly make these topics prohibited also in CIs can be regarded as an evidence of lack of academic freedom and certain censorship which is unacceptable in democratic countries and in our enlightened age. Some professors also find the idea that China sponsors them with the teaching materials, stuff and teaching methods, is wrong, because they already have quite strong China or Asia studies departments with good performance.
56 Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford [England: Oxford University Press.
57 Knowles, G. (n.d.). English Language Imperialism: Year In Review 1997. In Britannica.
58 The Debate Over Confucius Institutes. (2014, June 23). ChinaFile. Retrieved from http://www.chinafile.com/conversation/debate-over-confucius-institutes
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Of course, not everyone is skeptical about the establishment of the CIs. Some professors say that China has great and rich culture and while the CIs are teaching people Chinese, introducing the country to the students, everything is fine. But if something goes wrong there is no necessity to abandon the whole institute, because sometimes only small adjustments are needed to fix a broken thing.
Not only had the lack of academic freedom and hiring policies become main concerns about the Confucius Institutes. There are ways more serious and deep problems like accusation of espionage for example. Some people believe that Chinese government is using the CIs as a spy tool. A top Sinologist and one of the program’s most outspoken critics from Philadelphia - Arthur Waldron – says that the CIs may play a key role in effecting China’s espionage agenda. He also thinks that they might be used as tools for keeping tabs on Chinese students who are studying abroad59.
The CIs are even sometimes called “Trojan Horses with Chinese characteristics.”
For example, the former chief of Asia-Pacific for the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS), Juneau-Katsuya says that despite the fact that the education level provided by the CIs might be really good, there is still no doubt that this organization is used as a spy agency, thus they represent a particular threat for the Canadian government and the Canadian public60.
However, there are also doubts that Beijing would risk and jeopardize its investment by discrediting the Confucius Institute. As it has many other ways of gathering information. No security service has uncovered any such machinations since the creation of the CIs in 200461.
Opinions will always differ. While someone’s attitude towards the Confucius Institute is positive, others will remain highly critical. Being afraid that the presence of the CIs might be harmful to them some countries or universities are deciding to close the CIs, or in another words, simply do not want to renew their agreements with the institutes.
Among them are the following universities, which due to this or that reason did not want to continue their cooperation with the Confucius Institutes:
59 Fingleton, E. (2014, May 5). Is Stanford Collaborating With Chinese Propaganda? Just Asking. Forbes.
Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/eamonnfingleton/2014/10/05/is-stanford-collaborating-with-chinas-espionage-program/
60 Ghoreishi, O. (2014, October 14). Beijing Uses Confucius Institutes for Espionage, Says Canadian Intelligence Veteran. Epoch Times. Retrieved from http://www.theepochtimes.com/n3/1018292-hosting-confucius-institute-a-bad-idea-says-intelligence-veteran/
61 Mattis, P. (2012, August 02). Reexamining the Confucian Institutes. The Diplomat. Retrieved from http://thediplomat.com/2012/08/reexamining-the-confucian-institutes/.
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agency established to gather cultural intelligence", though they apologized later for these words62) McMaster University (Canada; reason: concerns over hiring practices63
University of Lyon (France; reason: the Chinese director of the CI was
“taking his instructions directly from Beijing”, and the content of the courses poses a lot of questions64)
Université de Sherbrooke (Canada; reason: violation of academic freedom65)
University of Chicago (USA; reason: concerns that, Chicago was ceding control over faculty hiring, course content, and programming to Confucius Institute headquarters in Beijing66)
Pennsylvanian State University (USA; reason: goals are not consistent with those of Hanban67
Toronto District School Board (Canada; reason: “this partnership is not aligned with TDSB and community values, and its continuation is not appropriate”68
Stockholm University (Sweden; reason: no need in this kind of cooperation69)
62 Japanese university apologizes for calling Confucius Institute spy agency. (2010, June 12). People's Daily.
Retrieved from http://en.people.cn/90001/90782/7023278.html.
63 Bradshaw, J., & Freeze, C. (2013, February 7). McMaster closing Confucius Institute over hiring issues.
The Globe and Mail. Retrieved from
65 Montgomery, M. (2014, September 9). University teachers call for an end to Confucius Institutes. Radio Canada International. Retrieved from http://www.rcinet.ca/en/2014/09/09/university-teachers-call-for-an-end-to-confucius-institutes/
66 Redden, E. (2014). Chicago to Close Confucius Institute. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/09/26/chicago-severs-ties-chinese-government-funded-confucius-institute
67Confucius Institute update. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.la.psu.edu/news/confucius-institute-update
68 Toronto schools reject tie-up with China’s Confucius Institute. (2014, October 30). South China Morning Post. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/news/world/article/1628071/toronto-schools-reject-tie-chinas-confucius-institute
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If we compare the overall number of the CIs opened all over the world with the number of the closed ones, we might see how on the one insignificant it is if someone does not want to continue its cooperation with the CI. One could say that there are still plenty of other CIs. However, on the other hand it is very important and dangerous. If someone does not want to be friends with you today could mean that tomorrow others can follow his lead. In this case Hanban needs to examine deeper the reasons which stand behind the decisions of the universities to close the CIs and do some “correction of mistakes”. That could help him to prevent precedents of this kind in future.
If we compare the overall number of the CIs opened all over the world with the number of the closed ones, we might see how on the one insignificant it is if someone does not want to continue its cooperation with the CI. One could say that there are still plenty of other CIs. However, on the other hand it is very important and dangerous. If someone does not want to be friends with you today could mean that tomorrow others can follow his lead. In this case Hanban needs to examine deeper the reasons which stand behind the decisions of the universities to close the CIs and do some “correction of mistakes”. That could help him to prevent precedents of this kind in future.