The findings derived from the current study provide strong support that gender indeed plays a role in vocabulary self-efficacy beliefs during the middle school years. Early adolescent male /female students' self-efficacy beliefs differ and change over time. Based on this main finding, the researcher provides several pedagogical implications to enhance male/female vocabulary self-efficacy beliefs for teachers, researchers, administrators, curriculum specialists, educators, or policy makers with some suggestions to create a more learner-friendly environment, curriculum designs to improve our EFL vocabulary learning.
The pedagogical implication for enhancing male/female learners’ vocabulary self- efficacy belief
The implication for enhancing male/female learners' can be divided into two phases.
Implications for high school teachers to put into consideration
According to Bandura (2003) and Pajaries & Urdan (2002), efficacious teachers, competent of creating productive learning environments, inspiring dynamic and meaningful instruction, make efficacious students. Taken this in mind, teachers in the modern era should not only respond to students' affective and cognitive development, but also acquire a knowledge of how boys and girls differ in learning in order to strengthen their confidence to "adopt behavior patterns in education and health that can have lifelong significance" (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1995, p20). It is crucial for all modern teachers to understanding learners' difference and change the way teachers judge learners' performances for the purpose of fostering students' mastery experiences and achievement across various academic areas and levels.
In order to expand the scope of self-efficacy into new arenas, the author attempted the current study to survey the relationship between gender differences and vocabulary self-efficacy belief over time in EFL classroom. The findings of this study shows that early adolescent male /female students' self-efficacy beliefs differ and change over time, which gives the snap-shot of a small world of early adolescents' personal, social and learning behavioral change in their transition year on their vocabulary learning. Based on the findings in the current study, several implications are provided for the EFL high school teachers in Taiwan. The elucidation, based on the Bandura's four sources of self-efficacy theory, is as follows, to enhancing male/female learners’ vocabulary self-efficacy belief.
To begin with, students' previous mastery experience (prior vocabulary knowledge) is the most important cognitive factor leading to the biggest difference in learners' self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura 1994, 1997). The findings in the study reveal that students'
past learning experience and academic achievement (especially their test performance) decide their stronger efficacious belief in learning English vocabulary at time 1. To raise an effective mastery experience for learners, an efficacious instructor should focus on enhancing explicit/ implicit lexical instruction and learning strategies as a means of developing learners' vocabulary depth and breadth at the initial stage, thus consolidating vocabulary knowledge and competence to build fluency with vocabulary in their transition year. Once learners build up the successful vocabulary learning experience at the beginning, it is more likely for them to feel secure and sustain their future learning success. For example, goal setting, independent word-learning strategies and authentic learning training -- are highly recommended for application at Time 1 and 3 during early adolescents' commencement year in high school. First, teachers may set vocabulary goals for students at the first day of the school. Goals give adolescents purpose and direction in life and a sense of accomplishment, which equip them with the intellectual tools, self-belief, and self-regulatory capabilities needed for autonomous learning (Wentzel 1998). Second, to consolidate previously taught vocabulary and help students maintain a necessary learning rate of 2,333-2,500 words per year (Tseng 2009) during high school, an independent word-learning strategy training is needed at the initial stage of vocabulary mastery learning (Ebbers & Denton 2008). Teachers can train learners on some very basic, memory- enhancing exercises through visual, acoustic, semantic and tactile encoding to allow learners' deep processing, and optimized retrieval such as mnemonics and keyword methods. Third, as the constant grind of homework and testing started to take their toll on the learners and our EFL learners are already past their cognitive ability to remember tons of facts and vocabularies, efficacious teachers should find ways to bridge the target words with learners' passions, hobbies, past experiences (prior knowledge) or future career.
Vocabulary learning should be applied in as authentic a situation as possible, such as issues of environmental pollution, stray animals, child abuse, school dress code, etc. For girls, presenting vocabulary in balanced acoustic and sensory measures will assist them in reaching longer vocabulary retention, as they develop better listening ability and sensory memory (Gurian, 2008). For boys, they need more visual and tacit input to facilitate their photographic memory of words (Gurian 2008; Sax 2005).
Second, based on the findings of the present study, peer influence and teacher instructions are the secondary salient factors influencing the learners' vocabulary self-efficacy changed pattern through time 2 onward to time 6. Several authors consider peer influence as an indispensable source, for teenagers, of affection, empathy, consideration and adventure (Howard, 2010; Bandura, 1997, 1994; Gurian 2008; Lynch, 1998; Caroline, 2009). Fischhoff et al. (1999) emphasized the benefits of the good sense of belongingness that adolescents received from the peer's positive feedback. Maslow (1954) viewed the need for love and belongingness as a facilitator toward achievement in his hierarchy of motivation model. People with more sense of love and belongingness tend to value their own worth, gaining more confidence and a proactive attitude to learn and achieve. Through six time points, it is highly recommended that teachers should offer more cognitive models and set mentor programs for learners, when they experience their lowest self-efficacy beliefs between time 2 to time 3; time 4 to time 5. For example, girls tend to build up relationship to foster their self-efficacious feelings (Sax 2005; Gurian 2008).
Teachers can become a girls' best friend, and mentor and function as a model to increase girls' vocabulary self-efficacy. Teachers can also find the coping or mastery model most similar to their vocabulary learning experience to raise their self-efficacy and expose boys
to a variety of male mentors from all walks of life, who have succeeded in language learning (Schunk & Zimmerman 2007).
Third, Bandura's “persuasion and feedback" was placed as the third source for gaining the self-efficacy belief. In this current study, findings reveal that female learners put more value on their social-affective support (from the teachers and parents) than do males. Accordingly, regardless the gender issue, the researcher suggests teachers should give more feedback and confidence to learners, especially when students experience their lowest self-efficacy beliefs between time 2 and 3; time 4 and 5. For instance, use substantial compliments and avoid hyperbole. When giving feedback on student performance, it is better for the teachers to compare to past performances by the same student, instead of having comparisons between students. Give learners practical information to assist navigating through challenge for both sex (Sax 2005; Pajaries &
Urdan 2002).
Fourth, the findings of the current study reveal that at time 2 and 4, both males and females show the parallel lowest efficacious belief in learning vocabulary. It is wise for teachers to put more emphasis on physiological and emotional support, when students experience their lowest self-efficacy beliefs between time 2 and 3; time 4 and 5. For example, help girls understand their own feelings, since girls easily fall victim to stress and anxiety from learning failures and thus degrade their performance (Gurian 2008).
Provide females a vocabulary learning-friendly atmosphere emphasizing individual mastery, self-direction, and collaboration and minimize competition and allow females to evaluate themselves according to their own standards (Gurian 2008). For females, use
supportive non-confrontational strategies to improve learning behavior, instead of adopting confrontational strategies (McCabe & Margolis 2001; Wentzel 1998).
Fifth, school faculty should work hand in hand with teachers to create a dynamic self-efficacious school/classroom environment, stressing the importance of effort, meaningful learning, self-regulation to help students maintain positive perceptions of their self-efficacy to succeed, allowing them to feel useful and successful (Usher &
Pajares 2006). For example, increase positive peer influence by offering male and female models through after-school mentoring/modeling program or in-class peer coaching activities. Set programs, clubs and counseling sessions, in which males and females can learn effective study strategies to monitor their progress to achieve their self-regulation.
Implications for the policy makers, curriculum designers and researchers to put into consideration
Last but not the least, for the ultimate goal to elevate and substantiate our high scholars' vocabulary learning self-efficacy nationwide in the EFL context in Taiwan is by no means an easy task. In fact, the whole educational ecology has to be changed for the better and there should not allow for another "New wine in the old bottle" kind of education reform! The present study only offers the small glimpse of the interaction relationship between gender and learners' vocabulary self-efficacy over one year for their English learning. We have to further our exploration to find out the solution from understanding the root of our past failure. Experiencing through almost 13 years educational reforms conducted under the charge of Ministry of Education (MOE), from the earliest 12-point action plan in 1998 to the present 2011, our EFL learners' overall English proficiency still has a lot to be desired (Chang, 2006). There was found two
factors resulting in this problems (see also Chang, 2006; Shen, 2001; Sue, 2001; Lin, 2003; Cheng and Jai, 2008; Chen, 2004). First, the lack of qualified teachers and inferior teaching qualities at the elementary level causes the destructive bipolar distribution in the primary stage and the middle school stage. With time, when the bipolar distribution problem accompanied by the imbalanced educational resources between countries and cities, the snowball effect of vicious cycle squints into the worst scenario that the monstrous vocabulary gap problem come into being from junior to high school and finally to college level. The poor vocabulary learners get less confidence and refuse to learn while the richer vocabulary learners get more confidence to achieve.
The second problem lies in our examination-oriented system. Based on Hsu’s study (2004), the Confucianism (placing too much emphasis on the rote memorization of the classics) influenced our mode of examination system, Chinese honor the rote memorization skill and focus too much of their attention on completing vocabulary exercises repeatedly to meet the exam requirements. Based on the interview findings in the current study, when the vocabulary gap problem accompanied with the examination-driven education systems, Taiwanese high school learners (usually neglecting the extended meaning of words and words’ usages) like to superficially memorize the English –Chinese meaning and only cram themselves with targeted testing words at the last minute because they have to deal with other paralleled important subjects to get higher scores and pass the entrance examination to get into a better university. This over-emphasis of giving accurate answers to examinations does not lead to fluency in speaking and listening English alongside the successful vocabulary learning (see also Hsu, 2004). To solve these two problems, the researcher offers several
suggestions to raise learners' English vocabulary self-efficacy and thus have greater motivation for learning:
(1) Offering quality English teaching in a sufficient amount of time scheduled for the basic English vocabulary training at the elementary stage is very crucial, regardless the application of the formal English instruction kicking off at an earlier age at grade 3 or grade 1 or not. Sherri and Sharon (2009) proposed that early word learning was highly related to frequency of input, children growing up with varying input will develop vocabularies that differ. It is critically important for diminishing the bipolar distribution problem and increasing our learners' vocabulary self-efficacy with quality learning since young. Based on the ideology "No one is left behind in learning", English instructors have to be well-trained and to the best conditions, using all- English teaching or at least 80% English teaching to solidify their listening and basic vocabulary reading and spelling capability. It is tested valid using whole English teaching is extremely beneficial for learners' listening and speaking capability (Chen & Yang, 2003; Chen & Chung, 2007) at all school levels. Kojicsabo and Lightbown (1999) confirmed the exposure of students to the English environment inside and outside of the classroom would definitely initiate independent learning capabilities geared to vocabulary acquisition. Phonics and basic skill training for defining and identifying words and sounds are the must in the elementary stage. Using portfolio specification strategy instead of using transcription marks young learners 'academic achievement at the end of the school year. Try to build up students' confidence and interest at the beginning of their English learning.
(2) The curriculum designers should start to draft a new vocabulary curriculum plans with sets of systematic vocabulary instructions catering for the junior high school teachers for
different areas in Taiwan. For example, preferably from grade 7 onward to grade 9, English instructors should teach young adolescents the simple version of the history of English, etymology and basic word structure like prefix, suffix and stem (presented in a fun way) to infer word meanings efficiently. Again, it is better to use portfolio specification strategy instead of using transcription systems to mark young learners 'academic achievement in order to raise junior students' confident learning. As for the high school level, where students' vocabulary confidence already reaches to the strongest because of the previous training and learning, the learning will be very much task/project -based), in order to activate students' creativity using vocabulary as a tool to learn and solve problems, to transform our high schooler into a competitive global person with vision.
(3) The National Test Center should embark on the redesigning of our test model, taking into account of the practical need in social development to provide students with chances to solving problems. The accurate L2 language knowledge should be tested in a variety of testing categories and present them within the frames such the listening, reading, speaking and writing in order to normalize and authenticated our learning for the increase of our learners' global competitiveness.