英語字彙學習自我效能改變-- 男女學習差異之縱向研究

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學英語學系碩士論文 Master Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 英語字彙學習自我效能改變-字彙學習自我效能改變-男女學習差異之縱向研究. Vocabulary Self-efficacy Change among EFL Students in Taiwan: A Longitudinal Study by Gender. 指導教授: 指導教授: 曾文鐽. 博士. Advisor: Dr. Wen-ta Tseng 研究生: 研究生黃心如 Xin-ju Huang. 中華民國壹佰年七月 July, 2011 i.

(2) 中文摘要社會認知學習理論學家班都拉(Bandura)自 1977 年提出名為「自我效能：朝向一致的行為改變理論」研究以來，學者們即以不同學科及多樣性知識領域來審視自我效能的概念原則與應用。此後大量研究結果（如 1996 年的 Pajares、2006 年的 Garcia & Maria de Caso、2001 年的 Bouffard-Bouchard、2007 年的 Hunk & Zimmerman 及 1986、1933、1977 年的 Bendura）揭示了自我效能的重要性，並廣受多數學者們支持。自我效能論，是班都拉在 1982 年根據社會學習論，所提出的以自我效能論來解釋之動機理論，他認為人在追求目標中，面臨特殊之工作動機強弱，乃取決於個人對於自我效能的評估。廣泛自我效能研究大多專注在學業的成績表現（如第二語言習得、數學及自然科學）、動機領域（如歸因、目標設定）、情感領域（如動機、焦慮及沮喪）、或是認知過程（如記憶表現、學習策略的運用) 以及臨床問題研究（如煙癮、毒癮、酒癮、恐懼症及糖尿病之變化與控制）。儘管學界已進行了數個以個人因素影響自我效能評估的研究，例如:年齡、性別、種族特性以及社會文化因素研究(如社會經濟地位)(2004 年的 Ellis）。但深入研究探討性別對自我效能於第二語言學習者學習英語字彙的影響，卻付之闕如。也許是因為眾人就性別對學業成績表現的影響已有個既定的成見，認為社會及文化才是其背後最主要的影響因素（1996 年的 Jovanovic & Dreves、2001 年的 Gallagher）。本研究旨在調查台灣高中生英語字彙學習自我效能是否有性別差異之影響。自 2007 年 9 月起至 2008 年 6 月止，研究員採用問卷調查方法，對 873 位來自台北市郊區兩所公立高中一年級的學生，進行為期十個月之縱向研究。分別在高一全學年六個期中考時間點前，蒐集問卷並進行量化評估。最後獲得有效問卷 601 份，問卷資料以二因子混合設計進行統計分析，以測定性別差異對英語字彙自我效能的影響。此外，由其中一所公立高中隨機選取六位學生，男女生各半，於上、下學期期末進行集體訪談，以期深究出能合理解釋男、女生在英語字彙學習自信心轉變之重要因素。綜合上述文獻分析及調查研究結果顯示，整體而言,在初期，男女生對英文字彙學習自我效能信念並無差異，但隨著時間發展，男性的英文字彙學習自我效能信念顯然比女性為高。兩性在六個不同的時間點，在自我效能上皆表現出規律的變化模式。本研究最後依據文獻分析討論及調查研究結論，提出具體英文字彙教學策略建議，以提供教師如何針對性別差異，提昇並激發個人英文字彙學習自我效能。最後，提出各項建議及計畫作為學校課程發展參考，並對校方及國家英語教育當局規劃者與未來研究者提供建議，以期創造更優質之第二語言英文字彙學習情境，確切落實於學校教育，俾使兩性在英文教育領域中獲得更佳之學習機會與潛能發展。關鍵字: 自我效能改變, 男女學習差異, 英語字彙學習, 縱向研究, 關鍵字 : 自我效能改變 , 男女學習差異 , 英語字彙學習 , 縱向研究 , 性別差異 ii.

(3) ABSTRACT Since Bendura’s (1977) study, “Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change”, the tenets of self-efficacy have been examined in diverse disciplines and settings. The importance of self-efficacy beliefs has received support from a massive body of findings (Pajares, 1996; Garcia & Maria de Caso, 2006; Bouffard-Bouchard, 2001; Hunk & Zimmerman, 2007; Bendura, 1986, 1933, 1977). These studies have focused on academic achievement (e.g., L2 language acquisition, science and mathematics), motivation (e.g. attribution, goal setting), affect (e.g. motivation, anxiety and depression), cognitive processes (e.g., memory performance, learning strategies use), and clinical problems (e.g., addiction to smoking, drugs and alcohol, phobias, and metabolic control in diabetes). Although several studies have been conducted to assess the influence of individual factors like age, gender and socio-cultural factors such as ethnic identity and socio-economic status (Ellis, 2004), in-depth studies conducted to assess the possible influence of gender on the self-efficacy of learners for second language (L2) vocabulary have been sparse. This is perhaps because of the existing belief that social and cultural factors are the major underlying forces leading to gender differences in academic performance (Jovanovic and Dreves, 1996; Gallagher, 2001). The purpose of the present study is to investigate the influence of gender on self-efficacy change for L2 vocabulary learning by adolescents in Taiwan. The longitudinal research was conducted on 601 first year senior high school students in a suburban public school in Taipei city, from September 2007 to June 2008. The researcher adopted a mixed method research, inclusive of a quantitative phase and a qualitative phase in the overall research study. In the first phase, a quantitative assessment of the year ten high school students' vocabulary self-efficacy beliefs was applied by conducting mixed designs to determine gender-based differences in those beliefs over six time points prior to the mid-term examinations. The major findings of the current study showed that learners held similar self-efficacy beliefs at the initial stage in English vocabulary learning and on average, the total males' self-efficacy levels were higher than those of females' through time. Both genders showed regular self-efficacy change patterns through six different time points. In the second phase, a follow-up semi-structured focus group interview was scheduled at the end of the two semesters with the same small-group of randomly chosen six students ( 3 males and 3 females, from one of the senior high schools ) involved, to explore if there were any possible factors that influence learners' self- efficacy change through time. A total of six themes (past learning experience, goal setting, attribution, social support, iii.

(4) teachers' expectation and feedback and peer pressure) were identified to be related to self-efficacy change through time. The pedagogical implication of gender differences in self-efficacy were then examined in light of the existing literature with a view to adopting strategies applicable in the L2 vocabulary learning context. Finally, some suggestions and plans were provided as reference for the development of curricula, school faculty and educational authority to promote both female and male learners the opportunity and maximize their full potential in the L2 classroom learning context. Key words: self-efficacy change, vocabulary learning self-efficacy, gender difference, learning difference, longitudinal study. iv.

(5) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This thesis has been a means of modifying a gap in the understanding and practice of my own teaching. I have been teaching for fifteen years as an English teacher in some public high schools. During the time, I have struggled with the content and the way how to best present the content of material that I teach. I have experienced both successes and frustrations in the classroom and taken part in many hours of discussion with colleagues about educational issues and methodologies. What I have not had through these years of teaching is a conscious articulation of the relationship between my teaching ideology and my practice of teaching. The urge led me, in 1996, into the NTNU , which offered me a precious chance to systematically explore and articulate the links between L2 language teaching ideology and classroom pedagogy. During the time that I have had the privilege of pursuing knowledge after members of the community of distinguished scholars, I have had tremendous support along the way. First and foremost, my greatest appreciation goes to my advisor, Dr. Wen-ta Tseng, for pushing me hard, right from the first day in the meeting for the thesis discussion. His gifts in critical thinking and expertise in quantitative science, inspires me to challenge myself to become more a researcher of precision and accuracy. A special heartfelt thanks are extended to both committee members Dr. Mei-chen Wu and Dr. Hsing-fu Cheng for providing jewels of words of suggestions, information and insights that have proven indispensable throughout the process. Finally, this thesis is dedicated to my beloved family and particularly to my dear loving mother. I owe her a huge debt of gratitude for supporting me and coercing me to continue with my master education. She patiently listened to my complaints, tolerated my occasional outbursts of tantrums and bolstered me with her best hand-made delicacy in hundreds of deepest nights over the struggling with the Herculean workload of construction of the thesis. This thesis, now at the end, was made much more fruitful for me by the interest and participation of the heated discussions with several like-minded confidants of mine -- Kip, sister Olsen and Roger. Definitely, it signs no end of the journey; on the contrary, it ushers into a new milestone ahead of me in the foreseeable future!. v.

(6) TABLE OF CONTENTS 中文摘要........................................................................................................................ii 中文摘要 ABSTRACT................................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...........................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................ix CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION .........................................................................1 Background and Motivation .................................................................................1 The importance of vocabulary learning ........................................................2 The importance of gender and gender difference .........................................3 The importance of self-efficacy belief ..........................................................5 Purposes of the Study............................................................................................7 The significance of the study ................................................................................8 Organization of the Study ................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................13 Self-efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory ..........................................................15 Social Cognitive Theory ..............................................................................15 Self-efficacy and Social cognitive theory ....................................................17 Psychological construct of academic self-efficacy .....................................19 Self-efficacy changes over the human lifespan...................................................26 Academic Self-efficacy studies over time (Some Empirical Research) .............32 Foreign Studies ...........................................................................................32 Domestic studies ..........................................................................................33 Gender and Gender difference ............................................................................35 The Kaleidoscope of Gender ......................................................................35 Gender difference in academic learning (Cognition)...................................39 Gender difference and Self-efficacy in Language Learning (Some Empirical Research)......................................................................................................43 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..........................................51 Participants and Setting.......................................................................................52 Quantitative phase........................................................................................52 Qualitative phase..........................................................................................53 Instrumentation ...................................................................................................54 Questionnaires..............................................................................................54 Follow-up semi-structure focus group interview.........................................57 Data Collection Procedures.................................................................................58 Quantitative phase........................................................................................58 Qualitative phase..........................................................................................61 vi.

(7) Data Analysis ......................................................................................................62 Quantitative phase........................................................................................62 Qualitative phase..........................................................................................63 CHAPTER FOUR RESULT .....................................................................................64 Results of the questionnaire .................................................................................64 The summary of the primary findings .........................................................64 Vocabulary learning self-efficacy difference between genders...................66 Vocabulary self-efficacy changes between genders over time ....................67 Male students' self-efficacy change over time .............................................68 Female students' self-efficacy change over time ………………………….70 Results of the semi-structured focus group interview..........................................72 The major themes at Time 1 ........................................................................72 The major themes at Time 2 ........................................................................74 The major theme at Time 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 ...................................................75 The major themes at Time 4 ........................................................................78 The major themes at Time 3 and 6...............................................................79 The major themes at time 5.........................................................................80 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS.......82 Discussion ............................................................................................................82 Research Question One:..............................................................................82 Research Question Two ..............................................................................86 Research Question Three ............................................................................89 Pedagogical Implication.......................................................................................98 The pedagogical implication for enhancing male/female learners’ vocabulary self- efficacy belief ............................................................................98 CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS…..107 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………107 Smmary of the major findings………………………………………………………107 Limitations and Suggestions for future research ...............................................109 APPENDIX A ...........................................................................................................125. vii.

(8) LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 PARTICIPANTS PROFILE ....................................................................................53 TABLE 2 CATEGORIES OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS IN THE VLSS .............................57 TABLE 3 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR VOCABULARY SELF-EFFICACY .......58 TABLE 4 THE MIX DESIGN ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) SUMMARY ...................65 TABLE 5 VOCABULARY LEARNING SELF-EFFICACY (GENDER DIFFERENCE) WITHIN TIME – MEAN COMPARISON ANALYSIS ...........................................................................66. TABLE 6 VOCABULARY LEARNING SELF-EFFICACY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENDERS – SIMPLE MAIN EFFECT ANALYSIS .........................................................................66 TABLE 7 COMPARISON OF THE POST HOC VOCABULARY SELF-EFFICACY CHANGE AT DIFFERENT TIME POINTS.....................................................................................68. TABLE 8 POST-HOC PAIR-WISE COMPARISON OF VOCABULARY SELF-EFFICACY AT DIFFERENT TIMES FOR BOYS ..............................................................................69 TABLE 9 POST-HOC PAIR-WISE COMPARISON OF VOCABULARY SELF- EFFICACY AT DIFFERENT TIMES FOR GIRLS ..............................................................................70. viii.

(9) LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 THE TREE-DIAGRAM OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW .........................................14 FIGURE 2 THE INTERPLAY OF “TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION” ................................17 FIGURE 3 SELF-EFFICACY AND ACADEMIC LEARNING ...................................................21 FIGURE 4 THE SIMPLIFIED SELF-EFFICACY CONSTRUCT .................................................26 FIGURE 5 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON GENDER DIFFERENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY IN LANGUAGE LEARNING ......................................................................................50. FIGURE 6 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE .....................................................................60 FIGURE 7 VOCABULARY SELF-EFFICACY SCORES FOR EACH TEST (SORTED BY GENDER)67. ix.

(10) CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION. This chapter contains four sections. The first states the background and motivation of this study; the second outlines the purposes; the third describes the significance of this study; and the fourth presents the organization of the study.. Background and Motivation. Overview. According to Ellis (2004), Nihat & Laura (2010), Oxford (1990) and Gardner (1985), a successful L2 language learning competence would not be possibly gained without considering the complex socio-cultural process through which learners interact with the target language community. Knowing learners’ affect state, motivation, and individual difference is essential for teachers in order to develop substantially the students’ unique identities in learning amidst the dynamic and changing social milieu. Engagement with language learning is a crucial factor in the success of male and female learners throughout their years at school and later on for their advanced academic, business and life success. It is critical for learners to understand themselves (personally, cognitively and behaviorally), the world, and the means by which they negotiate the varying social contexts that help them to learn. Clement (1980) proposed that self-confidence was an important determinant of the motivation to learn a L2. However, thus far, research has not yet explored sufficiently enough on how gender, an important aspect of identity (Gurian et al., 2008; Spade et al., 2008), interacts with learners' self-efficacy, in relation to L2 attainment. 1.

(11) The importance of vocabulary learning. Vocabulary learning is indispensable in any kind of language learning; few will dispute the importance of vocabulary. Without vocabulary, nearly nothing can be conveyed and all the knowledge representation would be futile and void in a person's mind.. Words, notably measured from a quantitative (the breadth) and qualitative angle (the depth) (Quian & Shedl, 2004), are often defined as the smallest unit of language and they are verbally expressed cognitive tools to communicate ideas. In any life situation, individuals use a set of words in a characteristic pattern to effectively communicate and receive feedback. For academic situations, learners’ vocabulary knowledge and lexical competence are strongly linked to academic success (Baumann & Kameenui, 1991; Schmitt, 2008; Goulden, Nation & Read, 1990). An increasing body of L2 research literature on vocabulary learning and teaching has proved that vocabulary acquisition is indispensable to attain L2 proficiency and L2 acquisition (Ruddell & Shearer, 2002; Schmitt, 2008; Atay & Kurt, 2006; Nation, 2001; Ellis, 2004). This is especially evident when one considers the correlation between vocabulary knowledge and different aspects of linguistic ability, such as reading (Kuo & Anderson, 2006; Hulstijn et al., 2007: Laufer 1997; Meara, 1997; Atay & Kurt, 2006) and writing (Anderson, 1981; Ebbers & Denton, 2008; Rozendaal & Boekaerts, 2007; Harris & Graham, 2000). Vocabulary knowledge denotes the aggregate of words in the use or comprehension of a specified person. It is the entire store of words in a person’s mind or his mental lexicon, which can be expanded by practice. Individuals who lack interest and motivation in reading and writing tend to become poorer in vocabulary (Stable, 1999) and their limited vocabulary and hence their lexical competence worsens over time (White & Slater, 1990; David, 2010). Those individuals who read more not 2.

(12) only have larger vocabulary, but also control of complex grammatical constructions, and consequently, they write better (Krashen & Ujiie, 2000).. However, many of EFL students in Taiwan still have a hard time comprehending what they read, due to their lack of understanding of unknown words. As Laufer (1989) once indicated, unless readers are familiar with 95% of the words in the given text, full comprehension will not be possible. A multitude of studies in different colleges and universities has indicated that Taiwanese students, despite years of English study, have particularly poor command of English, especially in the reading and writing ability (Luo, 2006; Chang, 2006; Huang, 2004; Atay & Kurt, 2006). Investigations conducted by Hsu (2009), Lin (2008) and Huang (2004) have singled the 10th grade (the transitional year from junior high to high school) as the most difficult year for Taiwanese students to fill their English vocabulary gap (from 1200 words in junior high to 7000 words in senior high). This is due of course to insufficient vocabulary size (Hsu, 2009; Lin 2008; Huang, 2004). It is well worth our attention to put some motivational factors, such as self-efficacy belief (a core element to activate motivation) into perspective. In the present study we consider those motivational factors from a socio-psychological perspective rather than linguistic perspective, with the goal to enhance vocabulary learning among these adolescent learners.. The importance of gender and gender difference. Gender permeates our life, from the sex roles in the home to the sex images in advertisements and merchandising, to career choices, employment and even academic performance; as Unger (1979) points out, “a body of findings has accumulated that relates sex tangentially to every conceivable phenomenon.” It was in the 1950s and 60s that gender studies first began to have a rousing effect in fields such as such as 3.

(13) sociology, anthropology, psychology and other disciplines (Deaux, 1984; Deaux & Major, 1987; Esplen & Jolley, 2006; Sax, 2005). Then in the 1970s and 1980s, the sex difference studies found ample applications in various disciplines (Deaux, 1984). Since gender maintains such a salient influence in society (Nowell, 1995; Hyde & Linn, 1998), it of course does matter particularly in language learning. Gurian (2008, p3) emphasized that "understanding gender differences in how girls and boys learn gives us a head start in meeting that challenge of instructing and guiding young minds." When students act and learn in a social structure, they do so for personal reasons, exercising their right to shape themselves as different individuals, performing differently. Teachers must therefore pay great attention to why and how learners choose to act in the academic milieu.. Recent research has shown the evidence for cognitive differences between male and female learners is slight and irregular (Hyde, 2005; Cheng, 2008; Caplan, Crawford, Hyde & Richardson, 1997; Pajares & Urdan, 2006). For example, many assume that girls are less interested in mathematics and boys in English, but the assumption of their preferences are more likely to be culturally acquired rather than biologically hard-wired (Hyde, 2005). Wighfield and Tonks (2002, p.63) investigated gender differences in competence-related beliefs during childhood and adolescence. The result indicates that girls are more competent than are boys for reading English, and social activities; boys, on the contrary, have better capability for math and sports. As motivation studies tend to emphasize cognition, there are overwhelming gender difference surveys in motivation regarding goal setting, self-regulation, learning anxiety in various kinds of academic subjects such as math, chemistry, biology and language learning, but few studies have turn their special lens toward the "long-term change" in adolescents' competence beliefs in L2 learning (Wighfield et al., 2002). 4.

(14) The importance of self-efficacy belief. Belief is synonymous with attitudes, representations, opinions or ideologies (Fraser & Gaskell, 1990). In accordance with one's belief, one guides himself to think, plan and act. The term self-efficacy is the belief one has in being able to execute a specific task successfully to obtain certain outcome (Bandura, 1986, 1993, 1997). For example, students’ ability to use word parts — prefixes, suffixes, and roots--- can help them to interpret new words successfully. Self-efficacy beliefs comprise judgments and assess one’s competence to execute a desired specific learning task. In other words, self-efficacy judgments are about what one thinks one can do.. Bandura (1997) attests to the importance of the role of self-efficacy beliefs in human functioning. Individuals possess a self-operating system that commands their cognitive and affective modes, orchestrated through their social environment. For Bandura, self-efficacy beliefs enable people to engage in symbolic manipulation, learn from others, plan strategies, regulate their own behavior, and employ self-reflection. Thus motivation takes place naturally without conscious maneuvering. In the academic setting, optimistic competence beliefs are necessary for attempting novel tasks or for learning new material (Pajares & Miller, 1994). Self-efficacy and its resiliency can motivate learners, regulate their behaviors and predict their academic learning. According to Schunk (2003), one of the most important consequences of the development of self-efficacy beliefs is the development of capacity for self-regulation. Students with high self-efficacy show greater cognitive effort, motivation, perseverance and self-regulation in their academic performance (Bandura 1997, 1993; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006, Schunk et al., 2008; Bembenutty, 2007). As Zimmerman (2000) put it, “self-efficacious students participate more readily, work harder, persist. 5.

(15) longer and have fewer adverse emotional reactions when they encounter difficulties than do those who doubt their capabilities”.. Research has clearly established the validity of self-efficacy and its close linkage to performance and competence (Bandura 1997, 1993; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006, Schunk et al., 2008). In a meta-analysis of 36 studies self-efficacy research published between 1977 and 1988, Multon, Brown, and Lent (1991) found a positive relationship between efficacy belief and academic achievement and concluded that self-efficacy accounts for 14% of the influence in motivating learners toward academic achievements. In short, self-efficacy beliefs influence the goals that people decide to set and the activities they choose. They assist learners to brave challenges with resilience, persistence and confidence and promote learners’ ability to master coming tasks when difficulties arise without too much anxiety.. Self-efficacy, the core element to activate self-motivational belief (Multon, Brown, and Lent, 1991), is one of the most important determinants to achieve good vocabulary learning; however the ongoing dynamic and cyclic self-efficacy change during the vocabulary learning process is still unclear. Having focused on L2 listening, reading, and writing for three decades, self-efficacy studies on L2 vocabulary learning is perhaps the least surveyed. According to Klanssen (2002, p31), gender difference in self-efficacy has not yet been analyzed in the majority of studies. Research tends to center on the gender differences in motivation regarding goal setting, self-regulation, learning anxiety in various kinds of academic subjects such as math, chemistry, biology and second language learning (specifically on reading and writing), but not on vocabulary. Various disciplines and settings have been tested for almost three decades with regard to self-efficacy; however, the relationships between L2 vocabulary learning, self-efficacy and gender differences have been largely untouched. Furthermore, 6.

(16) longitudinal studies on gender difference and vocabulary self-efficacy change are even sparser in existing literature. Hence, to expand the scope of self-efficacy into new arenas, the current study attempts to survey the relationship between gender differences and the social-affective roles played by self-efficacy over time in EFL classroom.. Purposes of the Study The aim of the current study is two-fold. First, it is designed to explore the interactive relationship between gender differences and vocabulary learning self-efficacy change over time. Second, the study provides the possible factors influencing the learners' vocabulary self-efficacy belief through time. The aim of the research is as follows:. (1) To investigate whether male and female's vocabulary self-efficacy beliefs change through time in their first academic year.. (2) To discover existing differences in vocabulary self-efficacy beliefs between genders.. (3) To examine the patterns of change in males/female students' vocabulary self-efficacy beliefs.. (4) To provide some potential factors that influence learners' self-efficacy change through time.. (5) To offer the in-depth understanding of learners' self-efficacy belief about vocabulary learning.. 7.

(17) (6) To put forth concrete teaching ideas and instructional strategies available to teachers that allow both female and male learners the opportunity and maximize their full potential.. Research Questions. Based on the purposes of the study, the following research questions are addressed:. 1. Does female and male learners’ self-efficacy change over the course of first academic year?. 2. What are the differences in vocabulary self-efficacy levels between changes for each gender at each time point? What are the possible factors leading to this difference?. 3. If self-efficacy changes for both female and male learners, what is the nature of these change patterns? What are the potential factors that occasion learners' change patterns?. The significance of the study Powered by the Internet and global media, English has transcended national boundaries and evolved as the most widely-taught and spoken L2 second language (Rao, 2010; Crystal, 2003; Warrington & Jeffrey, 2005). Perhaps two thirds of the earth population, including 400 million native English speakers is using English (Newsweek, June 21, 2010) and the demands will be continually increase, according to research by the British Council (2008).. Taiwan, like other Asian countries, has implemented several significant changes in its English education policy in response to the increasing need to keep up with the rapid. 8.

(18) globalization in foreign language proficiency. Since the application of the Proficiency Test in September 2001 in an effort to enhance overall English proficiency (Kao, 2003), English was taught as a required subject from middle school onward (Grade 7 to grade 12 from early 1945, (Chang, 2008). After 2005, English education in primary schools (starting in the fifth grade originally) extended to the third grade (Chang, 2008). According to the regulations, English is taught one hour a week from Grade 3 to 6 and four or five hours from Grade 7 onward to Grade 12. The class size ranges from 30 to 40 students. English in public schools is generally taught by native Chinese speakers, using the traditional grammar-translation method of instruction, which consists mostly of rote memorization of vocabulary, grammar rules and written sentence pattern exercises. Most classes are teacher-centered. Students usually passively learn while occasionally being asked questions and vocabulary studies mostly consist of words listed in a given text. Oral communication in English, inside as well as outside the classroom, is limited and even sparse.. Given the situation, many Chinese EFL students, despite years of formal study in English, are still unable to develop their lexicons to levels that would permit them to communicate, read or write with clarity and cohesion in English (Atay & Kurt, 2006). Students still have difficulties interpreting information in definitions especially when it comes to how the word is used in a sentence. Students have problems choosing the appropriate meanings from a dictionary entry for the daily communications. They have no knowledge about word parts like prefixes, suffixes and roots. They have poor lexicons to make inferences, elaborate, draw conclusions, clarify devices and find the main ideas of an article (Koa, 2003). Regarding the Internet based test of TOEFL, Taiwanese students' average score was only 72 out of 120 which still lags behind China's 78 and South Korea's 77 and Hong Kong's best average score of 80 points, 9.

(19) based on the reports made by Educational Testing Services (2010). Research in different Taiwan colleges and universities also shows students' poor command of English, especially in the reading ability (Luo, 2006; Chang, 2006; Huang, 2004). It is clear that the English vocabulary capability of the Taiwanese people is still insufficient despite the English-learning fever in the country. For almost three decades teachers, researchers and educational authorities have strived to find effective strategies, instructions and even policies to enrich their L2 language learners' vocabulary competence, but there are still a lot to be desired regarding the students’ overall English performance. There is an urgency to discover the factors that lead to this deficiency and to adopt every possible means to help our EFL vocabulary learners.. The social self-efficacy construct theory elaborated in the present study focuses on how L2 learners process various source of efficacy information in developing a stable and accurate sense of personal efficacy (Bandura, 1989; Lent et al., 2005; Pajares & Urdan, 2002, 2006) to achieve successful vocabulary learning. It is hoped that this longitudinal research study will provide teachers with valuable insights to aid students in developing their efficacious ability in L2 vocabulary acquisition. Ferrara (2005) states, “Self-efficacy belief is a motivational construct that is the key to promoting students’ engagement and learning”. Once the self-efficacious ability is acquired by students, L2 vocabulary learning can be transformed into a satisfying and rewarding experience instead of a frustrating and void mission. Gender, too, as a salient social structure and enormously intricate and fascinating social variable, will be comprehensively discussed in the literature review in an effort to explain some possible interactional patterns and institutional regulations regarding the self-efficacy construct and female and male EFL learners during the L2 vocabulary learning process.. Finally, the significance of the study is as follows: 10.

(20) (1) Reveals some significant vocabulary self-efficacy changes during students’ L2 vocabulary learning process; hence possible generalizations of the self-efficacy change patterns may occur.. (2) Offers empirical sources of students' vocabulary self-efficacy analyzed by gender, as well as the potential factors accounting for the changing patterns self- of efficacy belief.. (3). Presents some instructional strategies and ideas designed to ensure the maximization of female and male learners’ potential regardless of stereotypes and gender biases in the classroom learning context.. (4) Provides the pedagogical strategies to ease the high school transition for L2 language vocabulary learning as a whole.. In conclusion, the author intends to make the premise that we need to conceptualize gender as a social structure, and by so doing, we can better analyze the L2 vocabulary learning efficacy change patterns in which gender is embedded at individual, interactional, and institutional dimensions of our society. This is done to maximize our L2 female and male learners' learning potential and thus allow them to learn freely with confidence in the Taiwan EFL context.. Organization of the Study Chapter 1: An introduction to self-efficacy theory anchored within the EFL adolescence learning context; the purposes and research questions are presented, laying the foundation for the significance of this study.. 11.

(21) Chapter 2: A review of the focusing on the self-efficacy psychology construct aligned with other related conception and applications are reviewed. Selected empirical studies on the gender difference affecting L2 learning are overviewed.. Chapter 3: Provides the methodology incorporated with the research design, procedure, participants, instrument and data analysis in the study.. Chapter 4: Presents the results of the analysis in the study.. Chapter 5: Offers a further discussion of the main findings.. Chapter 6: A summary encompassing the limitations of the study and the pedagogical implications.. 12.

(22) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter gives a review of the literature related to (1) self-efficacy construct; (2) self-efficacy change; and (3) gender difference. For clarity, the three major sections to be elaborated are simplified in the tree-diagram represented as follows in fig 1.0:. 13.

(23) Figure 1 The Tree-diagram of the literature review. 14.

(24) Self-efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory proposed by Bandura (1962) is, to a certain extent, a theoretical refutation to behaviorism (Skinner, 1979). Behaviorists emphasize that the processes by which behavior comes from a purely external environment, and point out that human beings acquire new behavior simply through conditioning by extrinsic factors and stimuli. Behaviorism defines behavior strictly in terms of underlying physiological processes (Watson, 1913). However, Bandura (1962) postulates that humans are cognitively self-regulated and self-directed to shape and remold their life in any specific content via adaptation and change (Bandura 1990, 1993, 1986, 2003).. Bandura’s emphasis of human adaptation and change (Bandura, 2004) draws heavily on modeling, cognitive, self-regulatory and self-efficacy mechanisms. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (1989) has incorporated some aspects of social learning and imitation theory originally proposed by Miller and Dollard (1941), who rejected behaviorist notions of associationism in favor of drive reduction principles. However, the non-consideration of processes of delayed and non-reinforced imitations (Shirkey & Mennett, 2003) rang a bell with Bandura who later put much emphasis on the “observational learning” (Pajares, 1996). By imitating these observed actions, the individual observer solidifies that learned action and accordingly would be rewarded with positive reinforcement (Pajares & Urdan, 2002, 2006). The two scholars’ social learning was later expanded on with the additional concept of vicarious learning (peer) theorized by Bandura from 1962 to the present (Pajares, 1996).. Cognitive theories of purposive behaviorism (Tolman, 1967), level of aspiration (Lewin et al., 1944), locus of control (Rotter 1966), and achievement motivation 15.

(25) (Atkinson 1957; 1964) foreshadow the self- efficacy theory of Bandura (1977). The construct of social cognitive theory is the absorption of the best aspects of the behavioral psychology (e.g. reinforcement theory), humanistic psychology (e.g. self-actualization and motivation) and cognitive psychology (e.g. information processing theory), which features a new attempt to explain human actions in diversified fields such as education, healthcare and sports. Social cognitive theory considers people as anticipative, purposive and self-evaluating proactive regulators of their motivation and actions (Bandura, 2003). The central concept of social cognitive theory is "reciprocal determinism," i.e., human behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. The equally strong factors of (i) personal variables in the form of cognitive, affective and biological factors, (ii) behavior, and (iii) environmental factors interact to cause a complex pattern of behavior. Human behavior, which emerges out of this triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1986),. is. neither. the. result. of. incidental. combinations. of. independent. personal/environmental factors nor the product of mutual influences of personal and environmental factors, but is the result of the reciprocal relationship among personal, environmental and behavioral factors. Each operates as a reciprocal determinant of the others, as shown in the Fig 2.. 16.

(26) Figure 2 The interplay of “triadic reciprocal causation”. Personal Factors (Sense of self-efficacy, Goals, Attribution Process of Self-regulation). Environment Behaviors (Models, Instruction,. (Goal progress,. Strategy teaching,. Performance,. Feedback). Learning). Resource ：Bandura, 1986. Self-efficacy and Social cognitive theory Two lines of development can be found in social cognitive theory: the learning theory and the motivation theory. Learning theory mainly involves the cognitive theories, which can be defined in terms of human actions of adaptation and changes in order to develop, control and master their environment. Human actions/achievement can be conceptualized in reciprocal determinism, while motivation can be conceptualized in self-efficacy belief theory (Huang et al., 1998; Chung et al., 1997).. The self-efficacy mechanism is the heart of social cognitive theory. Without self-efficacy, one is unable to feel the basic element in one's sense of self required to observe and experience the results of one's actions in order to attain ideal behavioral capabilities. Nothing is more important than one's belief (confidence) in one's own. 17.

(27) competence for organizing and implementing the cognitive, behavioral or social skills to succeed in performing a task/goal assigned or desired.. The theory of self-efficacy (Bandura 1977; 1986) was developed within the framework of social-cognitive theory and is the pivotal engine to energize a person to attain their desired goal. Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes self-efficacy as a key mechanism (Schunk, 2003) in completing a task or activity to a prescribed level of performance. Self-efficacy posits individuals’ judgments and value in their capabilities to execute their control over assigned tasks. The effect of the former performance incorporated as a cognitive element into their schema-self determines their confidence and efforts in future performance. Hence, differing from behaviorist theories, which consider individuals as passive or reactive absorbers, social cognitive theory views individuals as proactive seekers.. Pajares (2002, 1996) considered self efficacy as a complex cognitive process comprising five basic capabilities (i) symbolizing capability to decode information processed (aware to involve) (ii) vicarious capability to learn from the cognitive model socially (observe to learn) (iii) forethought capability to self-motivate (to plan strategies) (iv) self-regulatory capability to have the internal control of self-imposed behavior (to control actions), and (v) self-reflective capability to analyze past thoughts and performance in goal-setting. It is one's self-efficacy mechanism, the integration of the self-system, interpersonally or intrapersonal or extra personally that enables one to process themselves (affectively and cognitively) over time to influence one's self-observations,. self-judgments,. self-monitoring,. self-regulations. and. self-evaluations (e.g., self-esteem, values), in order to achieve desirable behavior outcomes (Bandura 1997, 2003; Schunk 1995; Zimmerman 1998; Pajaries, 1996 Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003). 18.

(28) Psychological construct of academic self-efficacy The definition of academic self-efficacy Academic self-efficacy is the most forceful factor to achieve one’s individual learning; it comprises beliefs and judgments of learners' capability to achieve success. Learners accord their believed ability with what they are adept at, to execute precisely a desired specific learning task (Bendura 1990, 1993 1977, 1986). Learners turn the varied roots of efficacy information into the sources of self-appraisal in determining their choice, adding their aspirations, and self-persuasion to persist through the learning hazards (Bandura 1990; Schunk, 2003; Dornyei 2001, p.22).. In a nutshell, academic self-efficacy beliefs, involving one's inherent desire to logically organize their knowledge base, one's expectation for completing a given task, and one's belief about their ability as well as assessments of one's possible success and failure are all closely related to the strength of one's motivation to apply himself/herself to learn. Cognitively, strong self-efficacy beliefs boost self-confidence and assist them in developing greater cognitive/meta-cognitive ability, amidst the process of self-reflection, self-monitoring and self-evaluation in learning. A learner is able to set goals, form strategic plans and eventually self-regulate themselves to become autonomous learners. Motivationally and affectively, self-efficacy beliefs assist learners to challenge themselves with difficult tasks, heighten their goals and become intrinsically motivated. Learners with higher self-efficacy put in more effort and persistence to meet their commitments without fear and frustration. They recover from setbacks quickly and confine failures only to those things that are in their control.. 19.

(29) Academic self-efficacy belief, motivation, and achievement. Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation and academic achievement are mutually positively related. Stronger self-efficacy beliefs underlie stronger motivation and pave the way to greater achievement, In turn, greater achievement strengthens self-efficacy and motivation for further learning. Thus, strong self-efficacy beliefs predict possible successful achievement, while poor achievement indicates weak self-efficacy (Sheng, 2009; Ke, 2009).. Academic self-efficacy is like a continuum in which “one’s awareness of a realization of self as agent, via the process of meta-cognition, produces self-efficacy and results in internalized goals for learning” (McCombs & Marzano, 1990, p.52). To elucidate the dynamic relationship among academic self-efficacy, motivation and achievement, Schunk’s (2003) model of self-efficacy operation during academic learning (Fig 2) depicts how self-efficacy belief activates learners' motivation at the triggering phase to learn and achieve. At the outset of a learning activity, students have “goals” and a sense of self-efficacy for learning (Schunk, 1995, 2003; Zimmerman, 2000). Goals guide learners to arrange themselves to achieve and strategically plan ahead in each sub-goal to make things happen. After goal setting, students are engaged in their learning task, evaluating their progress by comparing their performance to their initial goals. Self-evaluation of progress enhances efficacy, maintains motivation and results in comparatively better performance. Failures and dissatisfaction in low achievement, on the other hand, will not lower self-efficacy and motivation if learners could adjust their strategies or re-set their goals in order to seek after another chance of success in the future.. 20.

(30) Figure 3 Self-efficacy and Academic learning. Self-efficacy. Task Engagement. Self-efficacy Motivation. For learning -------------- -------- Goals Self-evaluation Academic achievement _____________________________________________________________________ Resource：：Schunk, 2003 The major sources of self-efficacy. Bendura (1977; 1986; 1997) classifies self-efficacy resources as (i) mastery experiences (past performance accomplishments), (ii) vicarious experiences, (iii) social (verbal) persuasions and (iv) physiological and emotional states.. (i) Mastery Experience, the perception of previous successful performance is the most important source of self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1977, 1997; Jackson, 2002). Investigations by Pajares and Valiente (2001) on writing motivation and achievement in middle school students revealed that girls’ self-efficacy, as compared to boys, for self-regulating in writing led to better motivation and performance due to the girls enhanced self-confidence gained from former writing experiences. However, the failure in some boy students' mastery experience in writing diminished and finally consumed their writing self-efficacy. As Bandura (1994) alleged, successes build robust belief in one's personal efficacy, while failures undermine it, especially when they occur before a firm sense of efficacy is established.. (2) Vicarious Experience, or observational learning from modeling, is taken as the minor source to foster stronger self-efficacy in the learner (Bandura 1977; Schunk, 1987, 2003). Observational learning requires going through: (a) the attention (awareness) process of the models’ sample behavior, (b) the retention process of. 21.

(31) decoding the messages of the sample model into the recipients’ own coding language (c) the reproduction process of directing the observed learners action into behaviors similar to those of the model, (d) the reinforcement process of strengthening and solidifying desired behaviors using traditional reinforcement (external enhancement or rewards), promised reinforcement (incentives) and vicarious reinforcement to trigger motivation. (Bandura, 1997; Huang, 1995). According to Schunk (2003), observational learning takes place through cognitive modeling, which includes coping models and mastery models. During the learning activity, students observe and judge their capacity as superior or inferior to the models’ example within the delicate social comparison climate is very beneficial, producing a positive impact on learning (Locke & Latham, 1990; Schunk, 2003; Jackson, 2000). Social models illustrate or demonstrate their first-hand experiences and applications of skills or learning, raising students’ self-efficacy (Schunk & Hanson, 1985; Schunk. 2003). Learners who have less self-confidence in themselves, doubt their abilities or have little prior experience in various domains may find a coping model matching their perception (Schunk, 1995, 2003; Pajares & Urdan, 2006), According to Hunk and Pajares (2001), in the early learning stage, coping models may be better suited to improving the observing learners’ self-efficacy than the mastery model. Both coping and mastery models provide observing learners with greater opportunity to enhance self-efficacy in handling difficult situations (Pajares & Urdan, 2006).. (3) Social Persuasions: social messages like verbal persuasion, judgments, comments, evaluative feedback, anticipation of desirable outcomes, rewards, expectations of others, self-talk, positive imagery and other instructive strategies, are often elicited from other social members who intend to influence the learners’ perceived efficacy and self-perception. Bandura indicates that positive encouragement and cultivation of 22.

(32) self-confidence, regarding the attainable envisioned success will boost learners’ self-efficacy, while negative appraisals and hollow evaluative words will decrease self-efficacy (Bandura, 1994). It is harder to instill strong beliefs of self-efficacy solely by means of persuasion, since it is a weaker source of efficacy information than are past performance and mastery or vicarious experience (Bandura 1977). Moreover, the extent of the persuasive influence of self-efficacy depends upon the prestige, credibility, expertise, and trustworthiness of the persuaders (Chung, 1996).. (4) Physiological and emotional states also influence self-efficacy when people learn to associate poor performance or perceived failure with aversive physiological arousal and success with pleasant emotions. People live in a world that is primarily of their own making--"relying on their on their somatic and emotional states in judging their capabilities "(Bandura, 1997, 1994; Jackson, 2000). Students who approach public speaking with butterflies in their stomach likely lack confidence in their public speaking skills. Students who rack their brains with worry in composing essays usually find writing a difficult task to accomplish. When people experience aversive thoughts and fears about their capabilities, these negative affective responses can trigger the stress and agitation that help locate the inadequate performance which they fear. Therefore, as students contemplate an action, they will gauge their confidence by their emotional state as well as good or bad past experiences that they have experienced. Ones fear, self-doubt and level of fatigue or pain may decrease self-efficacy, while one’s happiness, exhilaration and tranquility may increase one’s self-efficacy.. 2.1.3.4 Significant influences of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy influences a person's behavior, thought patterns and affection.. (1) Cognitively, 23.

(33) (A) Self-efficacy is a reliable predictor of self-reported goal setting (Berry & West, 1993). Self-efficacy beliefs influences the goals people decide to set or choice of activities (Zimmerman, 2000). The stronger one’s self-efficacy in a specific achievement domain, the higher will be the goals that one sets for oneself in that domain. Choosing to set goals that are slightly beyond one’s actual capacity may provide potential mastery gains. In the face of difficulties, people with weak self-efficacy beliefs easily develop doubts about their ability to accomplish the task at hand, whereas those with strong efficacy beliefs continue their efforts to stick to their goals and re-set their goals when difficulties arise (Shirkey & Bennett, 2003). Berry and West (1993) indicated that through goal setting and goal commitment, proximal rather than distal goals and specific rather than vague goals, will boost one’s self-efficacy.. (B) Making choices triggers one's motivation to think, reflect and evaluate. People tend to avoid activities and situations they consider unmatched to their competence. Eventually, they opt for activities they are already adept at and capable of. Learners cultivate different capabilities, interests and values that determine their life. One's choice of activities, interests, values and behaviors impact profoundly their future growth and development.. (2) Behaviorally,. (A) Self-efficacy beliefs are predictive of the rate of performance and expenditure of energy, two important measures of students’ effort (West & Berry, 1993; Zimmerman, 2000; He, 2004). Effort, according to Berry and West (1993), is depicted more in a qualitative way as mental exertion or the use of various cognitive strategies toward task mastery. Various self-efficacy researches conducted on students' efforts in the arithmetic problems, math problems and deriving solutions to the difficult problems 24.

(34) showed that self-efficacy has a positive relationship to self-rated mental effort and achievement when the text material is perceived by the students as difficult (Zimmerman 2000). A resilient efficacious belief will arise when learners overcome obstacles through perseverant effort (Bandura, 1994). On the contrary, when learners acquire an easy success effortlessly, they tend to expect fast results and thus are easily feel frustration while encountering setbacks in the future (Bandura, 1994).. (B) Self-efficacy determines how much effort people will expend and how long they will persist in the face of obstacles or aversive experiences (Bandura (1986, p.394; Yang, 2004). Self-efficacy is a self-regulatory factor operationalized through either time spent on a task or number of items attempted or completed (Berry & West 1993). Schunk (1980) noted that the relationship between self-efficacy and persistence changed over time from a positive to a negative relationship. When learners employ increasingly efficient task-master strategies, they tend to reduce the multiple attempts and sustain earlier efforts.. (3) Affectively,. Self-efficacy beliefs also have the impact on learners’ emotional reactions. With higher self-efficacy beliefs, learners experience a more relaxed, secured feeling as opposed to the lower efficacious learners, who are often distressed, doubt their capabilities, and experience more frustrating anxiety in their approach to facing difficulties (Bandura, 1993, 2003; Schunk, 2001, 2003; He, 2004). The following figure (4) is the simplified self-efficacy construct based on Bandura (1977). 25.

(35) Figure 4 The simplified self-efficacy construct. Sources. Influence. Mastery Experience. (Cognitions) Goal Commitment. Vicarious Experience. Self-efficacy. (Affect) Satisfaction. Social Persuasion. Anxiety. (Behaviors) Physiological & Effort. Emotional State. Persistence. Self-efficacy changes over the human lifespan Self-efficacy beliefs develop and change over time via varied experiences in a given human lifespan. At any given period of change and human development, people's efficacious beliefs wax and wane in each of the dynamic and changing social spectrum with many varied personal factors (e.g., age and sex), environmental factors (e.g., school transition, work environment) and behavioral factors (e.g., good or bad learning/career performance) at play. Given that self-efficacy is multifaceted and much of the modern work on self-efficacy is conducted in the psychological vein of sociopsychology (Gecas, 1989), there are in majority three psychological processes through which self-efficacy beliefs affect human action (Bandura, 1994): cognitive process, motivational process and affective process. The following section provides a snapshot of the nature and scope of perceived self-efficacy over a given human life span based on these three processes:. 26.

(36) (1) Origins of a sense of personal agency in the infant stage (birth~2 years)–According to Piaget’s cognitive development theory (1952), the infant stage occurs within the Sensorimotor Stage of cognitive development. In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motor-related actions. Through their physical actions, infants understand the duality of the self and the surrounding. By exploration, infants realize that they are distinct from others and from objects, developing a sense of personal agency by performing the few actions which they are capable of through a process of non-stop sensing and observing (Owens, 1996; Garbarino et al., 1985). From their congenital reflexive, instinctual actions, the infants gradually grow towards an existence of symbolic thoughts (Owens, 1996; Garbarino et al., 1985). By exploration infants realize different effects of their simple actions and develop rudiments of self-efficacy (Bandura 1994).. (2) Booming sense of self-efficacy in the childhood stage (2~11): This stage, which encompasses the preoperational (2~7 years) and concrete operational (7~11 years) stages described by Piaget (1958), is characterized by individual’s appropriate use of logic. Based on direct observations, Piaget (1958) determines that children in this age are fairly good in inductive logic, which involves referencing things from a specific item to general concepts. However, children during this period show difficulty in using deductive logic, which involves using general principles to determine the outcome of specific events. In the early childhood, from 2~4 years, the children’s inability to handle social comparison messages results in their failure to construct true self-perceived competencies (Thornburg, 1982; Damon & Lerner, 2008). In this stage, social self-efficacy beliefs emphasize greater pro-social resolving of interpersonal difficulties than anti-social (Denham 1998). Interestingly, self-efficacy belief reaches its peak 27.

(37) within these years, with the overestimation of one’s ability, in a behaviorally expressed manner. Overwhelmingly optimistic beliefs of the children at this period underlie their positive evaluation of self-description (Magen, 1998; Thornburg, 1982; Damon & Lerner, 2008; Adelson, 1980). These children have relatively high competence and ease-of-learning beliefs, while for middle and later young children aged 7 to 11, as their cognition and logic increase, the ability to use social comparison for self-evaluation and the ability to distinguish ideal self-competencies from real ones emerge (Damon & Lerner, 2008; Adelson, 1980). This explains why numerous surveys reveal that academic self-efficacy belief begins to drop particularly from 3rd grade to 9th grade (Magen, 1998; Thornburg, 1982; Kan, 2004; Patrick et al., 2008). According to Klassen (2000), self-efficacy beliefs that decline from the 6th to the 7th grade rebound in the 8th grade. As Bandura (1993, p.138) asserts, for younger children, perceived social self-efficacy has no relationship to emotional and interpersonal patterns of behavior, while the academic forms of self-efficacy do. Basically, “young children have neither had the time and consolidating experiences to develop their style of behavior to the point where they differ greatly in conventionality, nor is their peer grouping firmly set, ”because “It is difficult for children to remain pro-socially oriented and retain their emotional well-being in the face of repeated scholastic failures and snubbing by peers that erode their sense of intellectual efficacy.” According to Pajares and Schunk (2003), there is little evidence for differences in self-efficacy among elementary-age children. However, self-efficacy difference begins to emerge following children’s transition to middle or junior high school (Adelson, 1980; Eccles & Midgley, 1989; Wigfield, Eccles, MacIver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991; Wigfield et al., 1996); girls typically showing a decline in self-efficacy.. 28.

(38) (3)Fluctuating sense of self-efficacy in the adolescent stage (12~17): Adolescents experience many important changes in their lives and circumstances that impact the development of their competence, motivation and self-efficacy (Damon & Lerner, 2008). Several investigations reveal the critical roles played by (i) self (personal), (ii) social and (iii) cultural variables in determining adolescent self-efficacy.. (1) Self-variables: include adolescent cognition and maturity. Cognitively, adolescent learners are in their formal operational period (Piaget, 1958). In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think abstractly. The abstract quality of adolescents thought at the formal operational level is obvious in problem solving ability of adolescent. By logical reasoning, adolescent draw conclusions from available information, both in real and hypothetical situations (Damon & Lerner, 2008; Keating, 1990; Mosman, 1998; Adelson, 1980). In this period, self-efficacy may be particularly low as indicated by Huang (1995, p.315), possibly due to their lack of ability to integrate the fragmented self into real relational social contexts (Damon & Lerner, 2008). Thus, they tend to follow the peer or social standards to adjust themselves in the group. In adolescence, powerful peer affiliations profoundly influence their present thought and behavior and impact future personal development (Bandura, 1993). Adolescents are also confronted also with biological changes inherent to growth and puberty and the resultant social pressure which follows, profoundly influencing their level of self-confidence (Huang 1995).. (2) Social variables include changing relationship with their parents, parent-teacher valuation, nature and quality of classroom instructions and school transitions. Adolescent’s self-efficacy beliefs contribute uniquely to the variance explained in developmental outcome within the complex realm of home, school and peer influence (Boekaerts and Rozendaal 2007). 29.

(39) (3) Cultural variables are intensely related to the social value for males and females images. Adolescents are changing cognitively with social standards. The stereotypical standards absorbed by male and female learners are quite different. Females are expected to remain gentle and obedient and are categorized into the soft and girl-friendly classroom settings like language arts, music and fine arts. Males, on the contrary, are expected to be masculine and trained in the male-dominant learning world of science, technology and mathematics. According to Huang (1995), adolescents usually follow some stereotyped culture standard before they find their mature self-system works properly in the future. This, in turn, strengthens the gender difference in coping with their academic leanings.. (A) Early and middle adolescents, notably, must constantly go through the “barometric self” (Adelson, 1980, p.237) due to their large dependence on the opinions, criticism or praise from peers over varying time periods and situations they encounter (Damon & Lerner, 2008, p.237). In this stage, females especially suffer greatly due to their weaker self-efficacy and their emphasis on fitting themselves into the standards of social sex roles (Damon & Lerner, 2008; Adelson, 1980). Conflicting standards and feedback from parents, teachers and peers also contribute to their lower self-esteem. Several studies consistently reveal that early adolescents have lower perceptions of their competence for different subjects and activities (Eccles et al., 1989; Jacobs et al, 2002; Bandura, 1933. Klassen 2000) further indicates the overall pattern of self-efficacy declines in this phase due to individual (organismic) and environmental (contextual) factors at play. Individual factors involves: (i) Increasing realism of students’ self-evaluations as they progress based on previous learning (ii) Perception of limited scholarly ability through social comparison (iii) Problems with consolidating identity and self-image (4) Challenging puberty period and sexuality. Contextual factor includes 30.

(40) (i) Transitions of school environment and classroom tasks. (ii) Competitive and stringent grading systems, and (iii) Fewer well-established relationships with family and teachers, and (iv) Lack of opportunity in participating in personal decision-making to gain independence.. (B) For late adolescents, the cultivation of a higher self-efficacy and competence in self-regulation to act strategically to solve everyday upcoming problems and make life decisions becomes important (Bendura, 1997). Late stage adolescents' cognitive ability advances, allowing them to overcome imbalanced vague self-perception formed during previous years, resulting in a more mature ability to integrate opposing self-attributes to prevent negative physiological and emotional states like distress, depression, anxiety and anger. Moreover, they construct the future “possible self” for further education and career goals (Damon & Lerner, 2008, p.246). More stable, positive and internalized attributions of personal beliefs, values and standards of academic success all contribute to higher self-efficacy beliefs during this period (Damon & Lerner, 2008; Adelson, 1980).. (4)Firm sense of self-efficacy in the stage of adulthood:. Young adults, with less academic pressure, are more concerned about the domains of work and relationships (e.g., marital relationships and parenthood) (Garbarino et al., 1985; Bandura, 1994). Beliefs about personal abilities influence occupational choices, career paths, job seeking and job performance (Bendura, 1997). A firm sense of self-efficacy contributes to feelings of competence in their pursuit of career success. According to Bandura, young adults also face the challenge of establishing new relationships once they assumed the expanded role of both parent and spouse.. 31.

(41) Middle-aged adults, in the occupational arena, find themselves facing the promotion problems as they are matched against with young competitors. With decreased physical capacities, elderly adults have declining self-efficacy as their biological functions are affected.. Academic Self-efficacy studies over time (Some Empirical Research) Foreign or domestic cross-sectional or longitudinal self-efficacy studies on L2 English learning are scanty. Most self-efficacy studies over time are centered on the area of mental and physical health. Studies of self-efficacy in EFL learning in Taiwan are mostly related to English learning strategy and grade level motivation in colleges, junior high schools and elementary schools. Multiple self-efficacy studies in grade/gender levels in mathematics and science have been conducted. Reports on teacher self-efficacy issues are also available.. Foreign Studies By a cross-sectional survey, Shell et al.’s (1995) examined grade- and achievement-level differences in 4th, 7th and 10th grade students' self-efficacy, attribution and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement. The results indicated that (i) there are grade- and achievement-level differences in self-efficacy; (2) as grade increased, efficacy beliefs for reading were more related to comprehension skills than to component skills, whereas efficacious beliefs for writing were more related to component skills than to communication skills; (3) 4th graders had lower task self-efficacy for both reading and writing, (4) 7th graders differed from 10th graders only in having lower task self-efficacy; (5) effort attribution was significant only for writing and reading ,and intelligence attributions were significant only for reading. 32.

(42) Friedel et al. (2010) conducted a longitudinal survey study, examining the goal emphases (teacher/parental goal emphasis) on students' efficacy belief in mathematics across the transition to middle school. There were 929 elementary participants (9th graders with girls making up 53% of the sample). During elementary school, children were in 65 math classes with 53 teachers; during middle school, children transitioned into 110 math classes with 34 math teachers. Data were collected at four time points during the fall and spring of students' sixth and seventh grade school years. The result showed :(1) Students' efficacy beliefs remained stable and relatively high across the transition;(2) children reported declines in both perceived teacher mastery and performance goal emphases in middle school compared with their elementary school teacher performance; (3) an increase in self-efficacy beliefs from elementary to middle school was predicted in group-level perceptions of teachers' mastery goal emphasis.. Magowe & Oliver (2007) conducted a longitudinal study in Botswana between 2002 and 2005, seeking to explore the relationship between self-efficacy and preferred language strategies, age, and proficiency. The 480 student participants included 168 primary school students, 175 secondary students and 137 tertiary students. The findings of the research show that (1) Botswana students across all levels of education are moderately efficacious about their learning of the English language; (2) there was a positive and significant but weak relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and use of overall language learning strategies across all proficiency levels; (3) poor proficiency learners with high self-efficacy use teacher asking strategies more often.. Domestic studies Zhou's study (2007) aimed to examine English self-efficacy, English anxiety, English learning strategies and English learning achievement of today's senior high 33.

(43) school students. The subjects were 1002 second graders from 12 senior high schools. She made the following conclusions:(1) English self-efficacy of senior high school students is generally good, with limited anxiety, the main source of anxiety being communication apprehension; (2) there is no gender difference in English self-efficacy, overall English learning anxiety, communication apprehension and classroom anxiety among senior high school students; (3) Female students are better than male students in student/teacher interactive anxiety, the use of overall English strategies and English learning achievement; (4) Interaction effect is not found among senior high school students' English self-efficacy, anxiety, strategies and learning achievement; (5) high school students' English self-efficacy, English learning anxiety and English learning strategies have predictive power on their English learning achievement. English self-efficacy is the best predictor of English achievement. Chen (2009) conducted a survey study aiming to examine the predictive power of English listening self-efficacy, English anxiety, and perceived value of English language and culture on EFL learners' English listening performance. The dominant sources of the EFL learners' English listening self-efficacy were also investigated. 277 Taiwanese college students participated in this research. Results showed that (1) English listening self-efficacy was a stronger predictor of English listening performance than were English listening anxiety and perceived value of English language and culture; (2) English listening anxiety and perceived value of English language affected English listening performance, their impacts were determined by the learners' levels of English listening self-efficacy; (3) mastery experience and social persuasion from teachers were the dominant sources of students' self-appraisal of English listening abilities. Kung (2009) conducted a three-year longitudinal study on Taiwanese students' mathematics learning at the high school level from a social cognitive perspective. 34.