(Does female and male learners’ self-efficacy change over the course of first academic year?)
The first question aims to investigate the possible time-dependent variations in learners' vocabulary self-efficacy and the influence of sex on such variations. The study revealed learners' vocabulary self-efficacy indeed changed over time. In other words, the vocabulary self-efficacy of boys and girls varied significantly and, in general, males showed stronger self-efficacy beliefs than females in vocabulary learning.
Overall self-efficacy change between genders over time.
Several earlier reports (Bandura et al. 1993; Powell 2002; Damon & Lerner 2008;
Adelson 1980; Pajares & Johnson 2002; Ecclesetal 1989) suggested that the higher level confidence of males in comparison to females may not reflect in their academic
performance. Corroboratively, in the present study, the overall confidence of males (M = 17.524) was significantly higher than that of females (M=16.759) (Table 3). However, the gender differences in the level confidence did not correlate with the academic performances of the individuals.
The findings of the present study corroborate those of the earlier similar studies
(A) Motivation on L2 language learning survey
Although women in general outperform men in the language areas, they appear to be weaker in self-confidence than men (Demon & Lemer 2008; Maoh et al. 2008; Klassen 2000; Pajares & Johnson 1996; Adelson 2008; Lott 1980; Bandura 1993; Pajares &
Urdan 2002). The gender difference in self-confidence can be attributed to the
over-cautious and self-critical nature of women in academic performance. Women hold a conservative view of their abilities and tend to underestimate their academic achievement.
Conversely, men in general are inclined to overestimate their academic performance. In classroom situations, it is not uncommon to see boys who tend to overestimate their performance and girls who tend to underestimate their own performance.
(B) Attribution survey between genders
Learners interpret their successes or failures in such a way as to maintain their desired self-image. In other words, they attribute their successes or failures to factors that enable them to feel good about themselves. In general, learners attribute their success to their own efforts/abilities, while they attribute their failure to factors over which they have no control. Hence, a learner’s own perceptions or attributions for success or failure determine the nature and degree of effort the learner will expend on that activity in the
future. Various studies suggested strong gender differences in learner’s attribution of successes or failures (Pan 2008; Erkut 1983; Basdw & Medcalf 1988; Kosillo & Arias 2004). Boys tend to credit success to their capacity, while girls attribute success to effort or luck. Girls are more willing to take responsibility for failures and attribute failures to intrinsic factors such as insufficient effort or lack of capacity. Boys, on the other hand, attribute failures to extrinsic factors such as bad luck, poor teacher qualification and difficult test questions (Banks & Woolfson, 2008; Schunk, 1989). Boys seem to have unwavering confidence regardless of success or failure, holding less doubts and suspicions about their competence than girls.
(C) Self-efficacy surveys on Teacher expectation
According to many research findings, the myth of gender stereotype still prevails in schools. Female students tend to lack self-confidence due to lack of proper attention and feedback. Investigating the relationship between teacher’s expectation and learner’s self-efficacy beliefs, Pan (2008) suggested that male students were susceptible to awareness of teacher expectations and hence they show higher self-confidence than females. As suggested by Seven & Engin (2002) males may receive more attention from teachers due to teachers' habitual conception of males as braver in asking more questions, more confrontational, or having shorter attention spans than females. Lott (1987) attributed such phenomenon to teachers' holding higher expectations for male students, who will stand more chance for potential success if properly trained. Girls, on the other hand, stand less chance to express and speak for themselves in the public.
(D) Self-esteem meta-analysis
By their extensive self-esteem meta-analyses, involving 115 surveys with 32,486 individuals, Matintino et al. (2009) found that females often showed lower self-esteem than males, owing to a number of perplexing physical and psychological factors and cultural influences. According to Powell (2002), females, aged 13 to 18, showed lower self-esteem than males by 50%.
(E) Hard-wired physiological and neurological difference between Genders
Gender difference plays a crucial role in determining confidence. From the physiological and neurological point of view, Gurian (2008) pointed out that females, with more oxytocin hormones, tend to dislike competition. In comparison to males, they are friendlier and more dependent and show less confidence when facing obstacles.
Adolescent females are more susceptible to frustration, depression and unhappiness. The research findings from Bandura (1993), Pajare & Urdan (2002) and Kutoboet et al. (2010) showed the similar conclusion that under the peer competition and cultural influence;
adolescent females pay not a few attentions to feminization in which females are required to meet beauty standards such as gentleness and slimness. Lott (1987) also addressed that the influence of premenstrual syndrome also caused frustration and depression in females.
A number of subtle physiological factors affect females with complexity and subtleness;
hence, females tend to lack self-confidence in comparison with male students.
However, studies by Lee (2007) and Hsu & Huang (1999) discovered a lack of clear correlation between gender difference and self-efficacy. Similarly, Zhou (2007) also indicated limited correlation between genders and general English self-efficacy. Overall, the gender difference is rather inconclusive in affecting students' self-efficacy as
compared to other more influential factors at play such as school types, levels, and culture dynamics.