5. A Comparative Analysis
6.2 Predictions
國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
111
belief that this scheme would work out smoothly in the long term, mostly on the assumption that the economic instances were isolated from the social context.
Evidence showed that this was not the case, and some corrections to the immigration policy were later introduced towards a more welcoming attitude that in some cases also allowed settlement, family reunion, integration programs, and generally longer stay periods for the immigrant worker. (Nonetheless, the
‘sedentary bias’ still persists in the Taiwanese policy towards immigrant manpower, as evidenced by the main way of settlement used by foreigners, namely, through marriage with Taiwanese nationals.) Whether this perceived shift of policy is due more to humanitarian considerations from the authorities of a still democratic country or rather a practical response to the perpetuation of labour shortage in the domestic manufacturing and care sectors is hard to tell;
however, economic and social factors signal that the need of foreign labour will grow in the future for the island. The only problem for Taiwan will be how to appeal to potential migrants. Low economic growth and lower wages in comparison to other Asian immigrant countries will make Taiwan a less attractive destination for migration flows, with the result that policy-makers will have to explore new avenues to find the necessary labour supply. One of these is to go towards a multicultural society by allowing even low-skilled and semi-skilled foreign workers to settle down in Taiwan and enjoy its high living standards and social benefits. The other is to agree with more formal ties with PRC and make use of its still huge labour surplus by relaxing regulations for the access of Mainlanders to the island. A good guess would be that Taiwan will follow a middle path whose width nobody knows yet, not even its policy-makers.
6.2 Predictions
Schematically we can sum up Italy’s attitude towards immigration policy as follows:
o EU-oriented o Soft-centred
o Bottom-up (illegal practices from the periphery) o Unplanned/Solidarist/Multiculturalis (laissez faire) o Regularisation (as a main way of settlement)
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
112 While Taiwan’s view is quite opposite:
o Self-oriented o Strong-centred
o Top-down
o Planned/Functionalist/Security-related o Marriage (as a main way of settlement)
Based on the above features elaborated in this study, we can attempt to draw a future scenario for both countries.
Italy’s international labour migration is quickly turning into internal migration, since at present most foreign labour comes from Eastern European countries, which have recently joined EU or are in the process of doing so. The progressive reduction of non-EU labour is consistent with the end of immigrant legislation and regularisation on the domestic front; and with the erection of walls to exclude the access of migrants from Africa and Asia, along the “Fortress Europe” view worked out at political level, on the European front. The southern coasts of Italy now constitute a port of entry (less of a barrier) for the multitude of refugees fleeing from poverty- and war-ridden areas in the Middle East and Africa, whose number is growing due to the instability of the region.
Taiwan’s traditional labour sources from Southeast Asia are drying up due to the combined effects of two events: first, the political decision to progressively limit exportation of labour on the part of sending countries (especially the Philippines and Indonesia) in order to sustain domestic growth; second, the constant erosion of wage differentials between Taiwan and the sending countries, which makes the island less economically attractive in the eyes of potential migrants. Now, solutions are many but uncertain. Taiwan’s authorities could sign up bilateral agreements with culturally more distant countries in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka or Bangladesh) or with Burma, to remain in Southeast Asia. Another solution would be to retain its present labour sources by raising minimum wages and improving conditions (such as the lifting of the ‘sedentary bias’). A final, daring option would be the opening of its borders to PRC workers, which probably could only happen in the presence of a massive political change across the Strait, of the same magnitude as the one occurred in Europe in the late 1980s.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
113
References
Agozino, Biko (ed.) (2000). Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Migration Research: Interdisciplinary, Intergenerational and International Perspectives.
Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Ananta Aris and Evi Nurvidya Arifin (eds.) (2004). International Migration in Southeast Asia. Singapore: ISEAS Publication.
Andersen, Margaret L. and Howard F. Taylor (2013). Sociology: The Essentials, Seventh Edition. Boston, USA: Wadsworth.
Arango, Joaquin (2004). “Theories of International Migration”. D. Joly (ed.), International Migration and the New Millennium, Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, pp.
15-36.
Athukorala, Premachandra (1993). “International Labour Migration in the Asian-Pacific Region: Patterns, Policies and Economic Implications”. Asian-Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, Vol. 7, Issue 2, pp. 28-57.
Bakewell, Oliver (ed.) (2012). Migration and Development. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Barclay, George W. (1954). Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan.
Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press.
Basch, Linda et al. (eds.) (1994). Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments and Deterritorialized Nation-States. London, UK:
Gordon and Breach.
Battistella, Graziano (2002). “International Migration in Asia vis-à-vis Europe: An Introduction”. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 405-414.
Belanger, Daniele et al. (2009). “Ethnic Diversity and Statistics in East Asia: ‘Foreign Brides’ surveys in Taiwan and South Korea”. Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.
28, No. 4, pp. 1-23.
Birindelli, A. M. (1989). “Le migrazioni con l’estero. Chiusura di un ciclo e avvio di una nuova fase”. Demografia e Societa’ in Italia, E. Sonnino (ed.), Roma:
Editori Riuniti.
Bonifazi Corrado et al. (2009). Italy: The Italian Transition from an Emigration to Immigration Country. Idea Working Papers No. 5, March 2009. Frankfurt, Germany: European Central Bank.
Boyle, Paul et al. (1998). Exploring Contemporary Migration. Harlow, UK:
Routledge.
‧
Population Movements in the Modern World, Third Edition. London, UK: The Guildford Press.Castles, Stephen (2009). “Development and Migration – Migration and Development:
What Comes First? Global Perspective and African Experiences”. Theoria, Vol.
56, No. 121, pp. 1-31.
Chang, Chia-Juch (1988). “Intercity Transportation Developments in Taiwan, R.O.C.:
an Overview”. ITE Journal, Vol. 58, Issue 4, pp. 27-32.
Cheng, Shu-Ju Ada (2006). Serving the Household and the Nation – Filipina Domestics and the Politics of Identity in Taiwan. Lanham, USA: Lexington Books.
Colombo, Asher and Giuseppe Sciortino (2004). “Italian Immigration: the Origins, Nature and Evolution of Italy’s Migratory Systems”. Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Vol. 9, Issue 1, pp. 49-70.
Corbett, John (2011). “Ernest George Ravenstein: The Laws of Migration, 1885”.
Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science, UC Santa Barbara, USA, http://www.csiss.org/classics/content/90 (accessed on 31 May 2014).
Cumings, Bruce (1984). “The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy: Industrial Sectors, Product Cycles and Political Consequences”. International Organization, Vol. 38, Issue 01, pp. 1-40.
Czaika, Mathias and Carlos Vargas-Silva (eds.) (2012). Migration and Economic Growth. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
de Haas, Hein (2008). Migration and Development: A Theoretical Perspective.
Oxford, UK: University of Oxford, International Migration Institute, Working Paper 9, pp. 1-61.
de Haas, Hein and Simona Vezzoli (2013). “Migration and Development on the South-North Frontier: A Comparison of the Mexico-US and Morocco-EU Cases”. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 39, No. 7 pp. 1041-1065.
Donnelly, Jack (2005). “Chapter 2: Realism”. Theories of International Relations, third edition. New York, USA: Palgrave Macmillan.
Fanning, Bryan (2011). Developmental Immigration in the Republic of Ireland and Taiwan. Working Paper Series 2012, WP 24. Dublin, Eire: University College Dublin.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
115
Felice, Emanuele and Giovanni Vecchi (2012). “Italy’s Modern Economic Growth, 1861-2011”. Quaderni del Dipartimento di Economia Politica e Statistica, No.
663, Novembre 2012, pp. 1-47.
Fitzgerald, Keith (1996). The Face of the Nation: Immigration, the State and the National Identity. Stanford, USA: Stanford University Press.
Foerster, Robert F. (1919). The Italian Emigration of Our Times. Cambridge, USA:
Harvard University Press.
Gershenkron, Alexander (1962). Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective:
A Book of Essays. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Press.
Giese, Karsten (1999). “A Preliminary Study of Irregular Migration from Mainland China to Taiwan”. Floating Population and Migration in China – The Impact of Economic Reforms, ed. Thomas Sharping, Hamburg: German Institute of Global and Area Studies, pp. 350-374.
Gold, B. Thomas (1986). State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle. Armonk, USA/
London, UK: M.E. Sharpe.
Gold, J. Steven and Stephanie J. Nawyin (eds.) (2013). Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies. Oxon, UK: Routledge.
Goodhart, David (2013). The British Dream: Successes and Failures of Post-war Immigration. London, UK: Atlantic Books.
Gravers, Mikael (ed.) (2006). Exploring Ethnic Diversity in Burma. Copenhagen, DK:
NIAS Press, Nordic Institute of Asian Studies.
Held, David (2010). Cosmopolitanism: Ideals, Realities & Deficits. Cambridge, UK:
Polity Press.
Hicks, John R. (1932). The Theory of Wages. London, UK: Macmillan.
Ho, Samuel P. S. (1978). Economic Development of Taiwan, 1860-1970. New Haven, USA: Yale University Press.
Hollifield, James F. (1998). “Migration, Trade and the Nation-State: The Myth of Globalization”. Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 595-636.
Holt-Jensen, Arild (2009). Geography – History and Concepts: a Student’s Guide.
London, UK: Sage.
Hsu, Chen-Min and Wan-Chun Liu (2004). “The Role of Taiwanese Foreign Direct Investment in China: Economic Integration or Hollowing out?”. The Journal of the Korean Economy, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 207-231.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
116
Janaka Biyanwila, Sumithra (2011). The Labour Movement in the Global South – Trade Unions in Sri Lanka. Oxon, UK: Routledge.
Joly, Daniele (ed.) (2004). International Migration in the New Millennium. Warwick, UK: Ashgate.
Kaneko, Kenji (2009). “Foreign Migrants in Taiwan and Japan: A Comparative Analysis”. Asia Journal of Global Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 22-36.
Katzenstein, Peter J. (1978). Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial Estates. Madison, USA: Wisconsin University Press.
Keliher, Macabe (2003). Out of China: or Yu Yonghe’s Tale of Formosa: a History of Seventeenth Century Taiwan. Taipei, Taiwan: SMC Publishing.
King, Russell (2012). Theories and Typologies of Migration: An Overview and a Primer. Willy Brandt Series of Working Papers in International Migration and – Ethnic Relations 3/12. Malmoe, Sweden: Malmoe University Press, pp. 1-48.
Knight, Patricia (2003). Mussolini and Fascism. London, UK: Routledge.
Koser, Khalid (2007). International Migration: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Lan, Pei-Chia (2006). Global Cinderellas – Migrant Domestics and Newly Rich Employers in Taiwan. Durham and London, UK: Duke University Press.
–––– (2007). “Chapter 10 - Legal Servitude and Free Illegality: Migrant ‘Guest’
Workers in Taiwan”. Asian Diasporas: New Conceptions, New Frameworks.
Rachel Parrena and Lok Siu (eds.). Stanford, USA: Stanford University Press, pp. 253-277.
Landes, David (1965). “Japan and Europe: Contrasts in Industrialization”. William W.
Lockwood (ed.), The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan. Princeton, USA:
Princeton University Press.
Lee, S. Everett (1966). “A Theory of Migration”. Demography, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 47-57.
Lee, S. Joseph and Su-Wan Wang (1996). “Recruiting and Managing of Foreign Workers in Taiwan”. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, Vol. 5, Nos. 2-3, pp.
281-301.
Lin, Ji-Ping (2010). Migration and Mobility in a Global Historical Perspective – A Taiwanese History of Migration and the Appraisal of Migration Theories:
1600-2010. Seminar Paper. Taipei, Taiwan: Research Center for Humanities and Social Sciences, Academia Sinica.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
117
–––– (2011). “Chapter 3 - Cross-strait and Internal Migration: Key Factors for Traditional Regional Formation”. The Second Great Transformation:
Taiwanese Industrialization in the 1980s-2000s, edited by Reginald Yin-Wang Kwok. Taipei, Taiwan: Chengchi University Press.
Liu, S. Dorothy (1996). “The 1992 Employment Service Act and the Influx of Foreign Workers in Taiwan”. Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal. Vol. 5, Issue No. 3, pp.
599-637.
Lucas Robert E.B. and Oded Stark (1985). “Motivation to Remit: Evidence from Botswana”. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 93, Issue 5, pp. 901-918.
Malmberg, Gunnar (1997). “Time and Space in International Migration”. Hammar T.
et al (eds.) International Migration, Immobility and Development.
Multidisciplinary Perspective. Oxford, UK: Berg, pp. 21-48.
Massey, S. Douglas et al. (1993). “Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal”. Population and Development Review, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 431-466.
–––– (1998). Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium. Oxford, UK: Clarendon.
Meyers, Eytan (2000). “Theories of International Immigration Policy – A Comparative Analysis”. The International Migration Review, Vol. 34, Issue 4, pp. 1245-1282.
Natale, Marcello (1986). “Fonti e metodi di rilevazione della popolazione straniera in Italia. Contributi del dibattito in corso e nuovi elementi conoscitivi”. Studi Emigrazione, Vol. 23, pp. 82-83.
Pastore, Ferruccio (2004). “Nationality Law and Migration Politics in the History of Post-unification Italy”. Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Vol. 9, Issue 1, pp.
27-48.
Piore, Michael J. (1979). Birds of Passage. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Portes, Alejandro et al. (1999). “The Study of Transnationalism: Pitfalls and Promise of an Emergent Research Field”. Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 22, Issue 2, pp.
217-237.
Ravenstein, Ernst Georg (1885). “The Laws of Migration”. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 167-235.
–––– (1889). “The Laws of Migration”. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol.
52, No. 2, pp. 241-305.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
118
Reyneri, Emilio (2003). Illegal Migration and the Underground Economy. National Europe Centre Paper No. 68, presented at the conference “The Challenges of Immigration and Integration in the European Union and Australia”, 18-20 February 2003, University of Sydney.
Rubinstein, Murray A. (2007). Taiwan: A New History. Armonk, USA: M.E. Sharpe.
Rusconi, Silvia (2010). “Italy’s Migration Experiences”. Network Migration in Europe e.V., pp. 1-11, retrieved at: www.migrationeducation.org.
Salt, John (1989). “A Comparative View of International Trends and Types, 1950-1980”. International Migration Review, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 431-456.
Sassen, Saskia (1988). The Mobility of Labor and Capital: A Study in International Investment and Labor Flow. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Sassen, Saskia (1991). The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. Princeton, USA:
Princeton University Press.
Satzewich, Victor (1991). Racism and the Incorporation of Foreign Labour – Farm Labour Migration to Canada since 1945. London, UK and New York, USA:
Routledge.
Schucher, Gunther (2008). Balancing Openness and Control: Immigration Policies in Taiwan and Europe. GIGA Working Paper Series, German Institute of Global and Area Studies, Hamburg, Germany, pp. 1-31.
Sciortino, Giuseppe and Asher Colombo (2004). “The Flows and the Flood: the Public Discourse on Immigration in Italy, 1969-2001”. Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Vol. 9, Issue 1, pp. 94-113.
Sciortino, Giuseppe (2004). “Immigration in a Mediterranean Welfare State: The Italian Experience in Comparative Perspective”. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 111-129.
Sciortino, Giuseppe (2009). “Fortunes and Miseries of Italian Labour Policy”. CeSPI, Centro Studi di Politica Internazionale, DOC. 1/09, pp. 1-16.
Selya, Roger Mark (1992). “Illegal Migration in Taiwan: a Preliminary Overview”.
International Migration Review, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 787-805.
–––– (2004). Development and Demographic Change in Taiwan. River Edge, USA:
World Scientific.
Shen, L. David (1993). “An Ambitious Six-Year Development Plan for the Future of Taiwan”. ITE Journal, Vol. 63, Issue 5, pp. 18-22.
‧
Sjaastad, Larry A. (1962). “The Costs and Returns of Human Migration”. The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 70, No. 5, Part 2: Investment in Human Beings, pp.
80-93.
Skeldon, Ronald (1997). Migration and Development: a Global Perspective. Harlow, UK: Longman.
Stark, Oded and J. Edward Taylor (1989). “Relative Deprivation and International Migration”. Demography, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 1-14.
Stark, Oded (1991). The Migration of Labour. Cambridge, USA: Basil Blackwell.
Tilly, Charles (1990). “Transplanted Networks”. V. Yans-McLaughlin (ed.), Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology and Politics. London, UK:
Oxford University Press, pp. 79-95.
Tishkoff, Sarah A. et al. (2009). “The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans”. Science, Vol. 324, No. 5930, pp. 1035-1044.
Todaro, Michael P. (1969). “A Model of Labour Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed Countries”. The American Economic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 138-148.
Triandafyllidou, Anna (2003). “Immigration Policy Implementation in Italy:
Organisational Culture, Identity Processes and Labour Market Control”. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 29, Issue 2, pp. 257-297.
Tsai, Pan-Long (1992). “Clandestine Labor Migration to Taiwan”. Asia and Pacific Migration Journal, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 613-620.
Tsai, Pan-Long and Ching Lung-Tsay (2001). “Economic Development, Foreign Direct Investment and International Labor Migration: The Experiences of Japan, Taiwan and Thailand”. Prosea Research Paper, Vol. 51, pp. 1-36.
Tseng, Yen-Fen (2004). “Politics of Importing Foreigners: Taiwan’s Foreign Labor Policy”. Han Entzinger, Marco Martiniello and Catherine Wihtol de Wenden (eds.), Migration Between States and Markets, Ashgate Publishers, pp. 101-120.
–––– (2011). Convergence and Divergence in Immigration Policy in Northeast Asia.
Paper prepared by the author for presentation at the Asian Sociology Workshop at the Institute of Sociology, Academia Sinica, Taiwan, December 16, 2011.
Tseng, Yen-Fen and Yukiko Komiya (2011). “Classism in Immigration Control and Migration Integration”. Tak-Wing Ngo and Hong-Zen Wang (eds), Politics of Difference in Taiwan, Routledge, pp. 98-115.
Van Hear, Nicholas (2010). “Theories of Migration and Social Change”. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 36, Issue 10, pp. 1531-1536.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
120
Vargas-Silva Carlos (ed.) (2012). Handbook of Research Methods in Migration.
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Vatikiotis, Michael R.J. (1996). Political Change in Southeast Asia: Trimming the Banyan Tree. London, UK: Routledge.
Vecchi, Giovanni (2011). In Ricchezza e Poverta’. Bologna, Italia: Il Mulino.
Vertovec, Steven (2004). "Migrant Transnationalism and Modes of Transformation”.
International Migration Review, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 970-1001.
Wallerstein, Immanuel (1974). The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New York, USA: Academic Press.
–––– (1979). The Capitalist World Economy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wang, Hong-Zen (2002). “Class Structures and Social Mobility in Taiwan in the Initial Post-War Period”. The China Journal, No. 48, pp. 55-85.
–––– (2011). “Immigration Trends and Policy Changes in Taiwan”. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 169-194.
White, Paul (1998). The Settlement Patterns of Developed World Migrants in London.
Urban Studies, Vol. 35, No. 10, pp. 1725-1744.
Yoon, In-Jin (2009). “A Comparative Analysis of Immigration Policy of South Korean and Taiwan: With a Focus on Foreign Migration Workers”. ARI Working Paper Series No. 3. Asiatic Research Institute, Korea University, pp.
1-26.
Zelinsky, Wilbur (1971). “The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition”. Geographical Review, Vol. 61, No. 2, pp. 219-249.
Ziegler, Maria (2011). Institutions, Inequality and Development. Frankfurt, Germany:
Peter Lang Verlag.
Zincone, Giovanna (2006). “The Making of Policies: Immigration and Immigrants in Italy”. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 347-375.
–––– (2006). “Italian Immigrants and Immigration Policy-making: Structures, Actors and Practices”. IMISCOE Working Paper WP 12. Amsterdam, Netherlands:
IMISCOE.
–––– (2010). “Citizenship Policy Making in Mediterranean EU States: Italy”. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, RSCAS/EUDO-CIT-Comp. 2010/1. San Domenico di Fiesole (FI), Italy: European University Institute.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
121
Zolberg, Aristide R. (1989). The Next Waves: Migration Theory for a Changing World. International Migration Review, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 403-430.