RESEARCH METHODS - Third Culture Kids 的職業選擇及工作適應

This chapter explains the research methods involved and the research approach taken to conduct this study. It covers the research framework, research procedure, research participants and sampling, data collection, data analysis, and research quality.

Research Approach

This study takes a qualitative approach because the topic is explorative in nature. I started with the intent to simply examine the experiences of twenty TCKs in the hopes to understand and gain more insight about TCK experiences in regards to their career choice and their adaptation to the work place. The study relies on the TCK participants’ own interpretations of their experiences to create a picture of what their career decision and adjustment processes may look like.

A qualitative approach is appropriate here because I am attempting to understand the meaning of the TCK experience in the context of career choice (Merriam, 2009, p.2).

Rather than trying to establish a cause and effect relationship between the TCK experience and the path of career development for an individual, or “describing the distribution of some attribute” (Merriam, 2009, p.5) among the TCKs, I was more interested in exploring different aspects of the TCK experiences, unveiling the TCK views of the world, and how TCKs as individuals may view the impact of their past experiences and assign significance to their careers so far and how those experiences shape their current and future decisions. The study is focused on the TCK understanding of their own experiences and the process that they go through as they adapt in their chosen careers. Qualitative research methods allow researchers to generate descriptive data through the participants’ own written, spoken, or visual works and observable behavior as a way to get to know the participant as individuals and to find out how they define their world through their personal history, struggles, victories and interactions with the world around them (Bogdan & Taylor, 1975).

This study was conducted from an interpretive or constructive perspective, which is described by Cresswell (2007) as a world view where individuals seek for understanding in the world within which they inhabit. They develop their own meaning for the

experiences they encounter. These meanings are complex and are often negotiated socially and historically, meaning that they are formed through interaction with others and through historical and cultural norms present in the lives of individuals. This type of information are most appropriately generated and analyzed through a qualitative approach to produce useful knowledge.

According to Merriam (2009, p. 24), phenomenology is “a study of people’s conscious experience of their life-world.” It is a suitable approach for studying human experiences that are “affective, emotional and often intense” (Merriam, 2009, p. 26). The TCK experience certainly falls under this category. The desired outcome of the phenomenological approach is to obtain the essence of a phenomenon. (Merriam, 2009;

Patton, 2002) After having read the research, readers should have a better understanding of what it is like to go through the TCK experience or phenomenon (Merriam, 2009;

Patton, 2002).

Specifically, this research uses the biographical phenomenology method or life history interviewing, which allows for the sharing of a series of events in an individual’s life through his or her own words (Bakar & Abdullah, 2008; Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009). It allows the researcher to examine the life of an individual, in the context of the world around him. By examining the events that have taken place in a person’s life, one can have a better understanding of how a person came to be at where he/she is currently (Hagemaster, 1992).

Research Framework

The problem identified in the study is that there is a lack of research on TCKs, specifically in the area related to their career choice and career adaptation. This study aims to study the issue by examining how their TCK experiences directly or indirectly affect their career decisions and how they adapt to the challenges at work.

The research framework for this study is based upon Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model. When TCKs go through their life experiences, their experiences are interpreted, reflected upon, and evaluated. After having done that, their experiences are internalized and they learn from what they have gone through. This learning shapes their self-identity and builds certain characteristics. In the learning process, they develop knowledge, skills, abilities, and other capabilities. When they encounter a new experience, learned

knowledge, skills, and abilities are drawn upon and tested. At this point, the cycle repeats itself again. Figure 3.1 is an illustration of this cycle.

Figure 3.1. Research framework.

ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION KSAOs are tried out in

new situations.

CONCRETE EXPERIENCE TCK life experience.

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION

Learning from experience which shape identity and characteristics.

Develop KSAOs.

REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION

Interpretation, reflection, and evaluation of TCK

experience.

Research Procedure

The different phases of the research procedure are described in this section. Some of the steps outlined below occur simultaneously, continually, or repeatedly throughout several phases of the research. For the sake of simplicity however, it is illustrated as a step-by-step procedure in Figure 3.2.

The first step in the research was to generate ideas and topics of interest. The viability of conducting the research, the issue of the sampling population and the availability and reach of the participants were considered and discussed at this stage before a final topic was determined.

When the final topic was chosen, literature reviews on TCKs and career choice and adjustment were done to find out what research and information are already done on the subject. This was important in determining an angle from which to discuss the topic as knowledge gaps in the current pool of literature were identified.

The research method and the research framework were then selected based on the literature reviewed, research purpose and research questions. I began the participatory observation stage to help gain more understanding about the participants under study by observing the TCKs around me.

Initial interview questions were drafted according to the research purpose, questions, and literature review. The interview questions were deliberated, refined and reduced through reviews and discussions. The interview questions underwent peer and expert review. The peers were classmates who understood qualitative research methods and have knowledge and experience in the interview process. The questions were also reviewed by two TCKs for clarity of content. Two pilot tests were then conducted. After the pilot test, the list of questions were again revised and finalized. Between interviews, the questions were frequently reviewed and were fine-tuned.

Twelve interviews were done in person and eight conducted over Skype. The interview recordings were transcribed and checked. The collected data were analyzed and interpreted. Results and findings of the research were consolidated and written up.

27 Figure 3.2. Research procedure.

Review Literature Identify Research Topic

Determine Research Purpose & Questions

Select Research Method

Select Research Framework

Conduct Pilot Interviews

Collect Data

Analyze Data

Conclude Research Findings

Participants and Sampling

Criteria for Participants

The participants of the study were chosen through purposeful sampling, more specifically, through snowball sampling, also known as network sampling (Merriam, 2009). Initially, the interview list started off with a few TCKs that I knew. Then I asked these participants to recommend other TCKs who may be good candidates, meaning that they fit the criteria and would be willing to share their experiences. Participants mostly recommended their TCK siblings and friends.

The participants of this study are TCKs who have lived in at least one other culture that is different from that of their parent’s home country for at least two years between the ages 8-18. Exactly how long it takes to develop third-cultureness, as explained by Pollock (1998), depends on individual characteristics. However, the criteria that they live abroad for at least two years is set to ensure that the participants have had some time to get familiar with and to adjust to living outside of their passport country. Although an individual’s developmental years span approximately from age 0 to 18, the criteria for this study is that they have lived abroad between the ages 8-18 because that is approximately when they begin to spend more time in school, where they would be under longer exposure to the host culture and develop the third culture identity (Fail et al., 2004).

It is also when they start to have more conscious memory of their experiences.

These TCKs also have at least 1 year of working experience at the time of the interview. This criterion allows for the collection of data on how career choices were made and ensures that the participants have experiences to share concerning the career adaptation process and strategies they employ.

Research Participants

Eight women and twelve men were interviewed (See Figure 3.3). The participants were between the ages 25-38 and the average age was 30.7 (See Figure 3.4). Four TCKs moved abroad for the first time for educational purposes, without their parents. They lived with host families or in boarding schools. Sixteen of the TCKs first moved abroad with their families because of their parents’ occupation. Out of the sixteen, half are from

diplomatic families, one from a military family, and one from a missionary family. The other six TCKs had parents who worked in various jobs and businesses (See Figure 3.5).

Eleven of these TCKs have lived in two countries prior to turning 18. The other nine TCKs have lived in three or more countries before the age of 18, and up to as many as eight countries (see Figure 3.6). On average, they lived in 3.15 countries before the age of eighteen.

The twenty TCKs in this diverse group work in different fields, ranging from engineering, to education and media, architecture, technology, research, business, finance and more. Based on information provided by nineteen of the twenty participants (one participant wished to keep her work details confidential), the average full-time work experience is 6.1 years. The most experienced participant has been working for sixteen years; the least experienced participant has worked for 1.75 years (See Figure 3.7).

See Table 3.1 for a list of participants and a summary of their background information and relevant experiences.

Male (12) 60%

Female (8) 40%

Female (8) Male (12)

Figure 3.3 Percentage of male and female TCK participants.

25-29 years old 30%

30-35 years old 65%

36-40 years old 5%

25-29 years old (6) 30-35 years old (13) 36-40 years old (1)

Figure 3.4 Age distribution of the 20 TCK participants.

31 Parents in Other

Businesses and Jobs 30%

Personal Education 20%

Diplomatic Family 40%

Missionary Family 5%

Military Family 5%

Diplomatic Family (8) Military Family (1) Missionary Family (1)

Parents in Other Businesses and Jobs (6)

Personal Education (4)

Figure 3.5 Reasons for TCK participants to go abroad.

5 countries 5%

4 countries 15%

3 countries 20%

6 countries 5%

2 countries 50%

8 countries 5%

2 countries (10) 3 countries (4) 4 countries (3) 5 countries (1) 6 countries (1) 8 countries (1)

Figure 3.6 Number of countries participants lived in before 18.

4-6 years 32%

7-9 years 32%

10-12 years 5%

13-15 years 5%

16-18 years

5% 1-3 years

21% 1-3 years (4)

4-6 years (6) 7-9 years (6) 10-12 years (1) 13-15 years (1) 16-18 years (1)

Figure 3.7 Participants and their years of work experience

33 Table 3.1.

Participant Information

Name Gender Age Nationality Countries lived in

34 Table 3.1. (continued)

Name Gender Age Nationality Countries lived in

35 Table 3.1. (continued)

Name Gender Age Nationality Countries lived in

36 Table 3.1. (continued)

Name Gender Age Nationality Countries lived in

Note. All participants have been given pseudonyms to protect their identity.

* Ursula did not wish to give specific details about her jobs for confidentiality reasons.

Data Collection

The data was collected mainly through personal interviews (unstructured and semi-structured) and some supplementary data was obtained via observation.

Personal Interviews

Two forms of interviews took place, unstructured interviews and semi-structured interviews. Unstructured interviews simply refer to interactions outside of the scheduled interviews, including informal conversations, and participatory observations. These types of interactions offered the researcher opportunities to learn about the TCKs and their experiences in more natural settings. Information obtained during these unstructured interviews also helped in the designing and refining of the interview questions (Merriam,

2009). Data from these informal sessions were not audio-recorded. Notes from these informal sessions were jotted down afterwards based on recollection.

For more deliberate and focused data collection, I invited the participants for semi-structured interviews. The participants were asked to recommend others who meet the criteria as participants of this study. The interviews were conducted in person and over Skype as some of these TCKs currently live outside of Taiwan. Interviews were audio-recorded. The interviewees were informed of the recording prior to the interview and their permission to record were obtained. The researcher kept a notepad on hand, but took minimal notes in order to focus on the participant and to observe body language that supplemented an interviewee’s words.

The semi-structured interviews were guided by a list of predetermined interview questions (See Appendix A). Certain questions were asked of all interviewees. The order and the wording of the questions differed slightly from interview to interview. When unexpected themes and topics surfaced during the interview, the researcher asked additional questions to explore these issues (Merriam, 2009).

Due to the fact that many of the interview participants spoke more than one language, and the researcher is bilingual (English and Mandarin Chinese), there was no restriction on the language used during the interview. The interviewee spoke in either Chinese or English, depending on whichever language he/she felt most comfortable or most expressive in at the given moment.

A few days prior to the interviews, the interviewees were emailed three documents.

The first was a copy of the interview guide, consisting of the list of questions to be asked so that they could preview them beforehand if they so wished. The second document was the participant consent form (See appendix B). This gave the interviewees background and basic understanding of the research study. It also explained the research procedures and what they were expected to do. The participants were informed of the confidentiality and protection of their personal information and how the interview data was going to be managed. Before the interview started, I went over the consent form with them again in person to see if anything was unclear or if they had any questions and concerns. Then they signed the form as an agreement to be interviewed under the guidelines described.

Finally, they were asked to fill out a copy of the TCK Participant information sheet (Appendix C), to provide basic demographic and descriptive information about their

experiences. Table 3.1 is a summary of the interviewee’s background and information as gathered from these forms.

Pilot Study.

After I refined my original list of interview questions by aligning them more closely with my research questions and the literature review, I selected two people with TCK background for my pilot test.

Brianna has lived in four different countries outside of her passport country. She has been working full-time for a little over three months, but has also held part-time work all throughout her college years. Kaylee has also moved in and out of Taiwan throughout her schooling years and she has worked for many years in the high-tech industry. While she fits the criteria for a formal interview and was happy to do the pilot interview, she did not wish to formally participate in the study.

I wanted to do my pilot interviews with individuals who have similar background as the formal interviewees to make sure that my questions were clear, and would be able to elicit out the type of responses and information as intended. The pilot interviews also allowed me to test out two different types of interview approaches. The two interviews differ slightly in format. The first interview was more structured. Many more specific questions were asked. The second interview was freer; questions more open in nature were asked and the participant had more control in directing the course of the interview. I tried these two methods to see which would yield more informative answers.

Brianna was asked more specific questions. At times, I also gave her examples to clarify what I was asking. That, along with the more specific questions may have directed her thinking a little more than I would have liked.

The interview with Kaylee was a lot freer. I would prompt by asking a general question, and we touched upon several topics without me specifically asking about them.

She also provided some new insight. Although it was informative, the interview was a lot lengthier, and the information was not as focused on the topic.

It is however, difficult to attribute the differences between the two interviews strictly to interview method. Differences in age, the amount of work experience, personalities, openness, and level of relationship with the researcher contributed to the differences in the interview results as well.

However, after an overall evaluation of the two interviews, I decided to revise my interview guide again. I took out some of the more specific questions and revised the wording of the questions so that they were less limiting. After this initial revision, I asked two of my peers and Kaylee to look through the questions. With their suggestions in mind, I revised the questions again. The revisions were minor, mostly to phrase the questions in a clearer way, and in format of the written question guide to make it look more appealing and less intimidating.

After four formal interviews, I evaluated my questions again. It seemed like I was lacking information concerning their work and adaptation experiences. It was easy to get information about their general TCK experience. The answers to the questions I asked about work and adaptation also did not necessarily connect with their TCK background.

In order to get the most relevant answers in a limited amount of time, I decided to revise my interview questions again so that the questions were more explicit and direct in asking specifically for examples about how their work and adaptation process related to their TCK background.

Observation

There were opportunities for me to observe two of the participants as they worked.

These two participants work with a non-profit organization. Every week, the organization puts together an event where the teachers working for the organization will host an English Bible study open to anyone who is interested in learning English while learning about Christianity. The program consists of singing, games, teaching, skits, and other activities. Some of the teachers have TCK background. Two of such individuals were interviewed and observed.

I sat in on the sessions and observe the teachers as they interacted with other people, such as co-workers and students. I observed them on stage, playing instruments, performing skits, and leading a large group (over one hundred people) in singing, and playing games.

Since I am fairly familiar with the event and attend regularly, it was easy to blend in and not be disruptive. It was also easier for me to focus on observing the participants, rather than having to worry about trying to adapt to the environment. I also had the opportunity to go back to the same setting and observe the TCKs on separate days. On the other hand, it is possible that I may have been so familiar with the setting that some

things were taken for granted and I missed significant data. Another limitation of observing at these sessions is that as Theodore, one of the participants had mentioned in the interview, only about 10% of who they really are come out on stage in a large-group

在文檔中 Third Culture Kids 的職業選擇及工作適應 (頁 33-55)