Third Culture Kids 的職業選擇及工作適應

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(1)Career Choice Process and Adaptability of Third Culture Kids. by Chih-Jen Hsu. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph.D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan July, 2013.

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(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A friend once told me that graduate school is a time of self-discovery. Two years later, I have discovered that Lucy was right! I thank God for the incredible journey that this has been; I had never expected to learn this much about myself and the person I have become through writing a thesis. I am grateful to all who have accompanied me on this adventure. I want to thank my family, especially mom and dad. I would never have made it this far without your unconditional love and support every step of the way, always! KT, I am so happy that we got to spend our early TCK years together! :) Dr. Chang, you have been the best advisor. Thank you so much for the gifts of time and encouragement. You have a way of bringing clarity to my sometimes very muddled thoughts; I cannot count the number of times you have managed to un-confuse me! My committee members, Dr. Tsai and Dr. Chien, you have been so enthusiastic about my research and your feedback and suggestions have brought greater depth to my work. I have truly enjoyed our discussions together. Thank you so much! Thank you to all my fellow TCKs. Each of you have been so gracious in opening up your lives to me by sharing your amazing stories. Special thanks to my classmates. It has been a pleasure and an honor to spend the past two years with you! Wendy and the rest of my Barnabas group sisters, I so appreciate your prayers for me! Anet, thanks for keeping me on track and accountable! The transcribers of my interviews deserve special mention for having tirelessly listened to the interviews and patiently putting up with the sound of my voice! There are many, many more people to thank. All I can say is that I am so blessed to have you in my life!.

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(5) ABSTRACT As both the result and the catalyst for globalization, third culture kids (TCKS) are a rapidly growing population. Their in-depth and prolonged exposure to a second, third, or more cultures outside that of their passport country during their formative years has a great impact on their lives. Through these cross-cultural experiences, they are molded and shaped to have certain characteristics as a result of their cultural blend. The TCK experience is one that provides them with rich material for learning on the one hand, and one which may bring confusion on the other. Paradoxes are common themes in many aspects of the TCK experience. This qualitative research is intended to explore the experiences of TCKs and how these experiences and what they have learned through these experiences shape their career choices and affect their subsequent adaptation to the workplace. When making career-related choices, TCKs do have particular considerations that appear to relate back to their unique experiences. These considerations include the desire for autonomy and control in their jobs, who works around them (colleagues and supervisors), variety in the job content, and opportunity for growth and development. In the study, many participants speak about their level of adaptability and confidence, and their sense of responsibility and trustworthiness. They have a broadened perspective, and often act as a bridge or mediator between people. Their experiences often give them more access to resources and as a result, they may be prone to develop multiple interests. In this research, many participants are good at handling a large number of relationships, but sometimes find it hard to have depth in individual relationships. Finally, the results show that different participants feel differently concerning their hybrid identity. Letting go, reaching out to others, observing others, and letting others fully express themselves before making a judgment are some strategies that TCKs employ to help them adapt in the workplace.. Keywords: TCK (Third Culture Kids), career choice, workplace adaptation, Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model. I.

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(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ..................................................................................................................... I Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... III List of Tables ............................................................................................................ V List of Figures ........................................................................................................... VI. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1 Background of the Study .................................................................................. 1 Problem Statement ............................................................................................ 3 Purposes of the Study........................................................................................ 4 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 4 Significance of the Study .................................................................................. 5 Definition of Terms........................................................................................... 5. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................... 7 Third Culture Kid (TCK) .................................................................................. 7 Career and Career Adaptability ........................................................................ 17 Experiential Learning Theory and Model ......................................................... 20 Summary ........................................................................................................... 22. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS .............................................. 23 Research Approach ........................................................................................... 23 Research Framework ........................................................................................ 24 Research Procedure ........................................................................................... 26 Participants and Sampling................................................................................. 28 Data Collection ................................................................................................. 36 Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 40 Research Quality ............................................................................................... 41. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .................................. 45 Career Choices: Process and Factors ................................................................ 46 Impact of the TCK Experience in the Workplace ............................................. 59 Strategies, Skills, and Abilities for Adaptation ................................................. 71 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 79. CHAPTER V FINDINGS REVIEW, IMPLICATIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND CONCLUSION .......................................................................................... 91 III.

(8) Findings Review ............................................................................................... 91 Implications....................................................................................................... 94 Limitations ........................................................................................................ 98 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 99. REFERENCES ....................................................................................... 103 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW GUIDE ....................................................107 APPENDIX B. PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM ................................. 108 APPENDIX C. TCK Participant Information ........................................ 110 APPENDIX D. SAMPLE TRANSCRIPT ANALYSIS ............................ 111 APPENDIX E. CODING LIST ........................................................................ 114. IV.

(9) LIST OF TABLES. Table 3.1 Participant Information .............................................................................. 33 Table 4.1 Summary of Research Findings ................................................................. 45 Table 4.2 Work Statistics of TCK Participants and Average Taiwanese Labor ........ 89. V.

(10) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Research framework ................................................................................. 25 Figure 3.2 Research procedure .................................................................................. 27 Figure 3.3 Percentage of male and female TCK participants .................................... 30 Figure 3.4 Age distribution of the 20 TCK participants ............................................ 30 Figure 3.5 Reasons for TCK participants to go abroad ............................................. 31 Figure 3.6 Number of countries participants lived in before 18 ................................ 31 Figure 3.7 Participants and their years of work experience ....................................... 32 Figure 5.1 Summary of findings and related TCK characteristics as potentially beneficial or potentially problematic .......................................................................... 93. VI.

(11) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The purpose of Chapter 1 is to give an overview of the topic under study and to describe different aspects of the study. The sections in Chapter 1 include background of the study, purpose of the study, problem statement, research questions, significance of the study, and definition of terms.. Background of the Study In the globalized world, boundaries between nations are rapidly disintegrating and the size of the global village seems to be ever-shrinking. As a result of increased global mobility, the number of third culture kids (TCKs) is quickly on the rise. Many children live a lifestyle of mobility and spend extensive time outside of their home cultures as a result of their parent’s professions or for their own education. According to Pollock & Van Reken (2009, p. 13), a TCK is defined as “a person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside the parents’ culture.” TCKs do enjoy distinct advantages and encounter unusual challenges from their mobile adolescence which differentiates them from individuals growing up within a single culture. Often, the TCK experience has so infiltrated an individual’s being that the TCK experience leaves behind life-long marks that are both positive and negative. When making career-related decisions, exposure to multiple cultures and nations can complicate matters. While they enjoy advantages that others do not share, which often include multilingual abilities and multicultural experiences, TCKs also face challenges such as not having enough in-depth understanding about a particular culture, sometimes even their home culture, because they have spent their time split between many places. Once a career choice has been made, TCKs would have to adapt to their new roles within the work environment, just like how they would have to adapt to a new place each time they moved. The discussion of career is important because to many individuals in the modern society, especially in the western part of the world, career has great significance attached to it. Career is often used to “attribute coherence, continuity, and social meaning” to life (Savickas, 2000, p. 1). Occupations offer individuals a way to be involved and to support 1.

(12) oneself in society.. When individuals participate in employment activities that are. productive and meaningful, it is beneficial to both the well-being of the individual and the hiring organization, and it is ultimately the building block that contributes to the stability of the society (Savickas, 2000). A career defined in the narrower, more traditional sense of the word consists of “the sequence of [job] positions held by individuals over the course of their lives” (Montross & Shinkman, 1992, p. 5). In contrast, Super (1980) depicts a broader and more extensive picture of a career, involving the array of roles that we play in our lives, the way these roles evolve over time and how they interact with a person’s characteristics and the external factors in our world which then shape our careers. Regardless of which definition we choose to use, for many individuals, a large number of years in life is spent on the planning, developing, or maintaining of careers so the examination of the decisions, process of career choice and workplace adjustment is an important topic. Furthermore, the career choices, process, and adjustment of TCKs are especially relevant to today’s world.. Due to increasing global cooperation and. competition, skills such as diplomacy, cultural competency, linguistic abilities, and the ability to reconcile different viewpoints are invaluable assets.. As a product of. globalization, individuals with a TCK background often acquire these skills naturally as they move through cultures, and in these aspects, they may have distinct advantages in the multicultural, global workplace arena over an individual growing up in a single culture (Selmer & Lam, 2004). Indeed, TCKs can be great workers in the modern workplace and their breadth of experiences may be valuable to the hiring organization (Jurtan, 2011; Selmer & Lam, 2002). For example, Selmer & Lam (2004) propose that TCKs may be ideal business expatriates to send for assignments abroad. Characteristics that they have developed through their cross-cultural experiences may reduce the amount of training and development needed (Selmer & Lam, 2004), thus helping to trim costs for the organization. With more understanding of the TCK phenomenon and its impact on TCK work experiences, TCKs can be better employed and developed as a valuable source of talent in the workplace today.. 2.

(13) Problem Statement A TCK experience leaves indelible impact on a person and can affect a person both positively and negatively throughout his or her lifetime.. The impact of the TCK. experience is pervasive and carries over to different aspects of life. Through their TCK experiences, TCKs often develop skills and characteristics that benefit them for a life time. They also develop coping strategies as they deal with the challenges of the lifestyle. A well-adjusted TCK may enjoy a rich and fulfilling life. However, depression and low self-esteem is also commonly cited in TCK literature due to adaptation difficulties. (Cottrell & Useem, 1999; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009) Although there are informative studies on the general issues of TCK experiences, there is a scarcity of information on TCKs and their careers, especially with a focus on how TCKs make their career choices and how they adapt in their workplaces. This lack of information creates problems for both individuals and organizations. For individuals, such an information gap may mean a lack of resources to help TCKs make better career choices. Although the career choice process may be challenging for anybody, however, collectively, TCKs do share unique characteristics and may face challenges that are not share by non-TCKs. Thus, it is important to have more knowledge in this area to address the problems. The knowledge gap in TCK workplace adjustment processes may mislead TCKs into thinking that they are struggling alone and are without resources and without help.. Poor adaptation in the workplace could result in low productivity, poor. performance, and low job satisfaction. Not only would this be difficult for the individual, it would also be a loss to the hiring organizations as TCKs could potentially be a competent pool of workers in the global workplace with their rich experiences and unique characteristics. For organizations, employers hiring TCKs without knowledge of the strengths and weaknesses of the TCK experience and their vocational tendencies or needs can also result in organizations placing TCKs in inappropriate positions. Organizations would not be able to harness the full benefits of the TCKs experiences and would not be able to recognize where they could support TCKs to help them overcome some of their challenges. A mismatch between an employee and his organization, a poor fit between an employee and his job, or inability to adapt in the workplace can translate into high costs 3.

(14) for an organization and create a lot of tension and frustration for both the individual and the organization.. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to explore the process that a TCK may go through when making career choices and how they adjust to the changes and challenges in their chosen careers. Specifically, the study seeks to uncover the possible effects that the TCK life experience may have on career choice and career adaptation for a TCK. To do this, the TCK experience is examined from the experiential learning perspective.. It is an. exploration of how the TCK experiences are interpreted by the participants, what knowledge, skills, and abilities the TCKs participants are able to develop from these experiences and finally how their learning from past experiences impact their subsequent choices in career and work adaptation.. Research Questions 1.. What is the process that TCKs go through when making their career choices? What factors do they consider?. 2.. How does the TCK experience help or hinder TCKs in adapting to their workplace?. 3.. What strategies, skills, or abilities, developed through their TCK experiences, do TCKs employ to help them adapt to the workplace and overcome challenges that they may encounter at work?. To respond to these questions, this study takes a qualitative approach and is intended to be explorative. The TCK interviewees are mostly of Taiwanese background, with a few participants from other parts of the world such as the USA, Korea, and Hong Kong.. 4.

(15) Significance of the Study Today’s work environment is one that is quick-paced, unpredictable, fluid, and marked by technological advances and organizational changes, among other changes. (Jurtan, 2011; Klehe, Zikic, Van Vianen, & De Pater, 2011). There is more cooperation but also more competition globally due to an increasing dependency among nations (Arthur, 2002). This creates a demand for individuals that have certain competencies to work in this global workplace. TCKs are potentially fitting candidates in this global workplace as they often acquire adaptive characteristics through their TCK lifestyle (Jurtan, 2011). It would thus be helpful to individuals and organizations to gain more understanding about the vocational choices and adaptation patterns of this group of individuals. Understanding the impact that the TCK experience may have on career choice and career adjustment may provide useful insight to TCKs and organizations in addressing needs and providing the support necessary to help TCKs develop a healthy, fulfilling, and productive career. Organizations can benefit more from hiring TCKs and more fully draw upon their strengths and experiences. Pollock (1998) noted that the quality of third culture-ness may develop in individuals who live within the confines of a national border but have been exposed to multiple cultures within that nation. This exposure produces experiences similar to that of the international TCK. Thus the study of TCKs and their experiences are relevant to even those who may live in one country but come in contact with multiple cultures. In fact, sociologist Ted Ward has been quoted in saying that a TCK is the prototype for the twenty-first century citizen (Pollock, 1998; Van Reken 2008).. The need for more. information on them and their experiences will only increase with time and globalization.. Definition of Terms Third Culture Kids (TCK) A Third Culture Kid is an individual who has lived in a culture outside that of his parents’ for a significant amount of time during his or her developmental years, which is approximately from birth to age 18. TCKs often develop relationships with all the 5.

(16) cultures that they come in contact with, but they do not fully belong to any single culture. Rather than feeling like they belong to a geographic location, often, they experience a sense of belonging in their relationship with others of similar background (Pollock, 1998; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). In his definition, Pollock leaves the length of time one needs to spend in another culture unspecified because the precise amount of time needed to develop third culture characteristics varies with each person and is difficult to pinpoint. For the purposes of this research, we limit the criteria for TCK participants to individuals who have spent at least two years living in another culture between the ages 8-18. Individuals with TCK background are sometimes also referred to as ‘global nomads’ or ‘transculturals’ (Fail, Thompson, & Walker, 2004) and sometimes, they are described as ‘cultural chameleons’ (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009), ‘hidden immigrants’, or as being ‘internationally mobile’ (Gerner, 1992). Sometimes, the term “adult third culture kid (ATCK)” is used to refer to a TCK who is no longer a child. In this study, the distinction is not made, and “TCKs” are used to simply refer to someone with highly mobile and cross-cultural experiences in their developing years.. Career Choice Career choices are decisions that an individual makes concerning their vocations and vocational development. In the present research, it simply refers to the full-time jobs that one chooses to do for any length of time.. Career Adaptability Career adaptability is defined as “the willingness and ability to change behaviors, feelings and thoughts in response to environmental demands” in one’s vocational role (Forrier, Sels, & Stynen, 2009; McArdle, Waters, Briscoe & Hall, 2007, p. 248). In this research, it is simply defined as the willingness and ability to change to adjust to the demands of the workplace.. 6.

(17) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter 2 gives an overview and a summary of relevant literature on TCKs, who they are, what makes them different from their peers, the effect that the mobile and multicultural lifestyle has on them, including benefits and challenges as a result of this lifestyle, common characteristics that TCKs, career theories, adaptability, and Kolb’s experiential learning model.. Third Culture Kid (TCK) The Making of TCKs In today’s world, not only is it common for people of all ages to travel to different countries and regions, but a growing number of people are living in multiple nations for extended periods of time starting early in their childhood years. The reasons for these opportunities to live abroad may include business expatriation, military, missionary work, work in foreign services, technical aid work, humanitarian and development aid, work in media, and work in education (Cameron, 2006; Jandt, 2007; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). These intercultural experiences change individuals in their worldviews, values, attitudes, abilities, and other fundamental ways. They are not true members of their host culture(s) and they are no longer the same person they were before their exposure to new culture(s) outside that of their original country. They have developed a “third cultureness” (Pollock 1998). The term Third Culture Kid (TCK) was first coined in the 1950’s by anthropologist and sociologist Ruth Useem (Espinetti, 2011; Pollock 1998).. Ruth Useem and her. husband John Useem worked with families of U.S. business and government who were on overseas assignments. She observed the children in these families and noted their uniqueness; observing different thinking patterns and different points of references for these children (Pollock, 1998). TCKs, a product of cultural exchanges, have always been around (Gillies, 1998; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). According to Pollock and Van Reken (2009), they are increasing in visibility now for various reasons. 7. Where they were perhaps once.

(18) considered anomalies, they have now become a rapidly growing group of individuals. As these TCKs grow up, they give voice to their experiences by forming groups, sharing their experiences on various platforms such as blogs, and websites, forming more awareness in the general public. Public figures who are TCKs have also brought more attention to this group of individuals. Finally, the significance of the TCK experience has increased in today’s world. “Looking at the TCK world can help us prepare for the longterm consequences of this new pattern of global cultural mixing.” (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009, p. 5). TCKs Defined Pollock defines a TCK as someone who has spent a significant amount of time during his developmental years in a culture outside that of his parents. This results in the individual incorporating elements from the host culture(s) and the “home” culture to create a third culture (Pollock, 1998). Pollock goes on to say that rather than finding a sense of belonging in a place, their sense of belonging lies within relationships to others of similar background. He felt inclined to qualify some of the key words within his definition.. As each person has different personalities, life experiences, perceptions,. attitudes, temperaments, and other characteristics, individuals will respond differently even to similar experiences. Therefore, the amount of time needed in a host culture before third-culture characteristics are developed varies for each person (Pollock, 1998; Selmer & Lam, 2004). Other variables to consider when examining a TCK life include:. disposition, age of entry into the mission context [host culture], amount of time spent as an MK [Missionary Kid], health of family dynamics, sibling separation, degree of social restriction experienced, amount of contact with other expatriates, frequency of visits back to the passport country, access to internet and electronic mail. (Cameron, 2006, p.150). Finally, the development of a TCK is what distinguishes the experience of a TCK most from that of his or her parents. The experience of living in a mobile and culturally mixed world impacts a person in a profoundly different way depending on whether it occurs during one’s developmental years or if it occurs in one’s mature adulthood (Pollock, 1998). 8.

(19) Even though each sub-group of TCKs (ie. children of business expatriates, missionary families, military families, and diplomatic families, etc.) has its own distinct characteristics, there are two definitive features at the core of all TCK experiences; TCKs are raised in a cross-cultural and a highly mobile world (Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009).. Two Sides of the Same Coin: Paradoxes of the TCK Lifestyle TCKs have the opportunity to reap tremendous benefits from their lifestyle. Through their experiences, the particular skills that they have the chance to acquire include cross-cultural, observational, social and linguistic skills. TCKs tend to be more open-minded, socially adaptable, intellectually flexible, resourceful, and are able to reconcile different view points (Cameron, 2006; Dewaele & Oudenhoven, 2009; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009; Yoshida et al., 2009). Yet at the same time, the same lifestyle that allows them to enjoy these benefits also present many challenges. The paradoxical and conflicting nature of the TCK life can be observed in many of the issues that they deal with.. Broad worldview vs. torn allegiance. TCKs may have a broader worldview, where they have the opportunity to live what others only watch on TV, or read in magazines and books (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). Sometimes though, the breadth in experiences of multiple cultures comes at the expense of depth in knowledge of a singular culture. While they may be knowledgeable about several other cultures, they may sometimes be insufficiently informed about their own to be competent in their home culture after their return (Cameron, 2006; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). While they have the opportunities to learn many languages, they may not be fluent in their mother tongue. Due to their broad experiences and the many places they have lived in and connected with, TCKs are often open-minded and can often quickly relate to different people by finding common grounds (Byttner, 2012). The downside of this is that TCKs may feel a sense of confused loyalties and torn allegiance (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009; Hoersting & Jenkins, 2011). An example of this internal struggle may be observed outwardly in how TCKs often become representative of all the cultures that they have spent time in and find themselves often jumping in to defend different cultures when other people criticize or attack that culture. They may defend their home culture or 9.

(20) host cultures with equal enthusiasm, depending on who is criticizing and which culture is being criticized (Byttner, 2012).. Appearance of cultural adaptability vs. lack of true cultural balance. Outwardly, many TCKs seem to have high sensitivity to their surroundings and are able to blend in well by adopting culturally sensitive and appropriate behaviors. However, inwardly, they can lack true cultural balance, defined as an “almost unconscious knowledge of how things are and work in a particular community” (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009, p.44). The reason that they may not have true cultural balance is because the nuances of culture are learned through immersion and experience.. The level of. knowledge and familiarity in a culture is proportional to how much time one actually spends immersed in a culture because culture cannot be learned by studying books (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). While they are able to pick up the outward elements of a culture such as language, appearance, and behavior through their TCK experiences, the subtleties of a culture and a community are not as easily and quickly learned.. Relationships. In TCK literature, it has been said that TCKs usually define their sense of belonging in terms of relationships rather than a place (Fail et al., 2004; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009; Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009). Pollock & Van Reken (2009) note that because of this, TCKs often will make greater efforts than non-TCKs in trying to maintain their relationships, especially those within the TCK community. On the other hand, because the TCK experience is often riddled with goodbyes, TCKs may be prone to develop protective instincts against the pain of separation by avoiding true intimacy in relationships. As high mobility is a fact of life for many TCKs, they know that a friendship is normally just for a short season in life. Often, TCKs are found to bypass the more superficial levels of communication and start straightaway on a deeper level for their relationships (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). However, even though they may start off at a deeper level of communication, they are often unwilling to move into deeper intimacy. Often, there is also little time for them to develop the relationship any deeper even if they had wanted to. Thus, they lack the practice to do so and this may affect their relationship patterns later on in life.. Pollock and Van Reken (2009) speak of the. possibility that emotional coldness and distance can become a protective mechanism that 10.

(21) is extended to many areas of life. They have noted that, “Sometimes what is praised as confidence and independence among TCKs may actually be a form of detachment” (Pollock and Van Reken, 2009, p. 139) Due to the number of people that they encounter in their TCK years, they often have many friends. Unfortunately, the sheer number of friendships can grow so large that it becomes unmanageable, not to mention the difficulties in maintaining relationships that are often geographically apart. TCKs may enjoy friendship from around the world, but they also have to deal with the pain and loss of having constantly interrupted relationships (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009; Smith, 2011). For many TCKs, one of the few constants in their TCK lifestyle is their family (Byttner, 2012), thus TCKs are often very close to their families.. Other Common TCK Characteristics Education. TCKs often have highly educated parents and are often sent to study in good schools abroad. In a study examining the educational and career choices of 400 TCKs, nearly 90% have college degrees, and over 40% have completed a graduate degree, while many others within the study are close to obtaining a graduate degree (Cottrell & Useem, 1999). They also gain a rich education simply by living and experiencing life in different cultures (Byttner, 2012).. Delayed adolescence. TCK literature speaks of an observed phenomenon called “delayed adolescence” which describes how TCKs are so often so busy trying to figure out the outside world every time they are in a new environment that they do not have enough time to explore within themselves to figure themselves out in the time that their peers get to do so. So, it sometimes may take TCKs a little bit longer to discover who they are, what they are good at, and what their passions are. They may settle down later in life in all areas, including marriage, career, and lifestyle. (Cottrell & Useem, 1999; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). 11.

(22) Perseverance and decisiveness. In terms of endurance through hardship and finding solutions when encountering problems, Pollock & Van Reken (2009) noted that TCKs are sometimes underdeveloped in their problem-solving skills for long-term issues since their highly-mobile lifestyle often meant long-term problems sometimes disappear on their own when it comes time to move. This meant that sometimes TCKs would consider simply packing up and leaving a situation that they find difficult or challenging rather than confronting the situation and finding ways to deal with long-term problems (Smith, 2011). On a related issue, the unpredictable and transitory nature of the TCK lifestyle prompts many TCKs to seize opportunities when they arise and so they may seem very decisive, albeit impulsive to some. At the same time, the same elements of uncertainty and a sense of having no choice in deciding where they will be and what they will do sometimes make it difficult for TCKs to make decisions and plan ahead for the future, so they may just allow life to happen (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009).. Other Elements of the TCK Experience. Other elements of the TCK experience may include living with obvious physical distinctions from the locals in host cultures, expectations of eventual repatriation to their home country, privileged lifestyles, and having a system identity, such as being a member of the religious community (missionary kids), being a part of the military community (military brats), or having membership in the expatriate community, in which they take up what Useem calls “representational roles” (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009).. TCKs and the Issue of Identity At heart, TCKs often struggle with a sense of rootlessness and restlessness. The constant changing of environments in their developmental stages of life makes it difficult for some TCKs to establish an enduring sense of identity and belonging. They have trouble pinpointing where home is, and they develop a “migratory instinct” that urges them to be constantly on the move (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009, pp. 123-127). Establishing a sense of identity and a sense of belonging are the greatest challenges for the average TCK (Isogai, Hayashi & Uno, 1999; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). “Identity is the stable, consistent, and reliable sense of who one is and what one stands for in the world” (Josselson, 1987, p. 10; Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009). Erikson 12.

(23) (1963), who is best known for his theory on the psychosocial development of human beings and often considered the founder of the identity theory, asserts that there are eight stages through which a person develops during his lifetime. Within each of these eight phases are psychological and social challenges to overcome.. The eight stages that. Erikson identified are: basic trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair. Each stage must be successfully completed and resolved for healthy development; otherwise, unresolved issues will resurface later on in life as problems (Werner & DeSimone, 2009). The fifth stage in this developmental model, identity versus role confusion corresponds to the general period of puberty and adolescence in a person’s life. However, Erikson explains that, though the adolescence stage in life is crucial for the formation of identity and an overt identity crisis takes place during this time, the formation of identity begins in infancy and continues long after adolescence. It is a lifelong development process (Erikson, 1980; Josselson, 1987). According to Erikson (1980), the feeling of having a personal identity includes two observations: one’s own perception of his “selfsameness” and “continuity in time”; and the fact that others recognize that sameness and continuity (p. 22). It happens when a person discovers a “persistent sameness within oneself” and also a “persistent sharing” of important characters with other people (Erikson, 1980, p. 109). This process of defining oneself is significant and does not happen in isolation. Personal identity is defined in relation to the world in which one inhabits; it happens within relationships to others. Downie (1976) asserts that the mobility factor leaves the TCK without a sense of roots and without a web of stable relationships to help them develop their sense of identity (as cited in Fail et al., 2004). The constant moving may hinder the formation of a complete sense of cultural and self-identity; the identity of a TCK is formed while juggling multiple cultures. Research show that often TCKs either feel like they belong to all the cultures they have come in contact with or none at all. “The TCK frequently builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any” (Pollock, 1989). This is the condition described as “marginality.” Bennett (2004) says that the stage of “integration” in his (1993) Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) can be used to describe people who make 13.

(24) frequent transitions between cultural contexts; TCKs certainly qualify. Bennett’s DMIS describes people’s progression from a state of ethnocentrism (where ones believes his own culture to be true and superior to all other cultures) to ethnorelativism (meaning that one believes that one’s culture is only one viable way of life among many other options) as they become more culturally competent (Bennett, 2004).. The six stages of. development in his model are 1) Denial, 2) Defense, 3) Minimization, 4) Acceptance, 5) Adaptation, and 6) Integration. As a person progresses from stage one through to stage six, he moves towards ethnorelativism. Stage six, “integration of cultural difference is the state in which one’s experience of self is expanded to include the movement in and out of different cultural worldviews” (Bennett, 2004, p.72). At this stage, no single culture is central to the individual’s view of life. Integration can have two manifestations of marginality, meaning that a TCK may effectively utilize his experiences and draw strengths from each culture and switch between these frames of culture with ease and experience constructive marginality. Or a TCK may outwardly still able to interact with other cultures, adjusting their behavior as the situation demands, but within, he may feel alienated from and rejected by all cultures, resulting in encapsulated marginality (Bennett, 2004; Fail et al., 2004; Selmer & Lam, 2004). The difference between the two states of marginality is whether or not the issue of identity has been resolved within (Bennett, 2004). A look into the biracial identity development models can also be enlightening since the issues of multiple cultures are central to the experiences of both biracial individuals and TCKs. Poston’s (1990) model describes five stages in biracial identity development. In the first stage, called personal identity, although they may have some awareness of race and ethnicity,. individuals experience self separate from his race and ethnicity. In the. second stage, called choice of group categorization, individuals choose an identity to take on.. Their choices are affected by many factors such as the people in their lives,. acceptance by different groups, their appearance, knowledge of language or culture, and personality. In the enmeshment/denial stage, individuals experience a sense of guilt, confusion, and torn allegiance for having to make a choice and deny part of themselves. In the fourth stage, appreciation, individuals start to more fully understand and appreciate their multiracial background and may start to explore the race that they had previously denied. In the final stage of the model, integration, individuals experience acceptance and wholeness concerning their integrated multiracial identity. 14.

(25) Fail et al. (2004) summarizes the findings of different researchers such as Brislin (2000) and Munayer (2000) regarding the effect of mobility on TCKs and the formation of their identity. Brislin explains that culture provides guidelines for specific behaviors. For TCKs, these specific behaviors change as they move from one place to another, often resulting in their cultural values and behaviors and therefore their sense of identity, being challenged when they arrive at a new culture. Munayer says that because TCKs so often find their old pattern of behavior or value from one culture inappropriate or unsuitable in the next culture; to adapt, they develop a chameleon-like quality, which go on to have a long-term effect on their identity formation (as cited in Fail et al., 2004; Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). They may never really gain a sense of who they are, and those around them may see them as a fence-sitter, never having a strong opinion or taking a stance on issues (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009). A poignant passage written by travel writer Pico Iyer describes the predicament of TCKs who are adept at blending into new surroundings but have not fully grasped their own sense of identity:. The Global Soul may see so many sides of every question that he never settles on a firm conviction; he may grow so used to giving back a different self according to his environment that he loses sight of who he is when nobody's around. Even the most basic questions have to be answered by him alone, and when, on the planes where he may make his home, the cabin attendant passes down the aisle with disembarkation forms, it may be difficult for him to fill in any of the boxes: ‘Home Address’, ‘Citizenship’, ‘Purpose of Visit’, even ‘Marital Status’. I can answer almost any of these from a variety of perspectives… But though this can be a natural – and useful – enough impulse in response to the question ‘Where do you come from?’ it becomes more treacherous in answer to the question ‘Where do you stand?’. (Iyer, 2000, p.25) While this chameleon-like ability to be highly sensitive to one’s surrounds and to change accordingly in order to blend in is a useful skill to possess when adapting to the day-to-day life in different cultures and environments, it may hinder the development of a clear sense of self.. 15.

(26) TCKs and Work The same study mentioned earlier that was done with 400 TCKs which concluded that overall, TCKs have a relatively high level of education when compared with the average non-TCK population also found that TCKs are also relatively high achievers at work (Cottrell & Useem, 1999). In the study, over 80% of TCKs in the study were found to be professionals, semi-professionals, executives, managers, or officials. From their occupational choices, it could be seen that TCKs value learning, they are interested in helping others, and they long for independence and flexibility within their work.. One-fourth of the TCKs in the study worked in education, 17% worked as. professionals, and 17% are self-employed. According to the study, not too many TCKs choose to work in corporations, and few enter into the government. Most than half of these 400 TCKs (56%) have incorporated an international element into their jobs (Cottrell & Useem, 1999). Much of the current literature on TCK is focused on the general TCK experience. In the few articles that discuss TCKs in the workplace, TCKs have been hailed as a particularly suitable workforce for the globalized age. Jurtan (2011) says that TCKs can be an important source of talent in today’s globalized workplace and their experiences may provide great value to organizations.. Jurtan suggests that TCKs possess the. adaptability, experience, and understanding beneficial to spearhead the processes of change in midst of organization changes, which frequently occur in the transience of today’s business world (Jurtan, 2011). Others have speculated TCKs to be the ideal business expatriate to send for assignments abroad, equipped with the linguistic and cultural fluency as well as the flexibility to effortlessly traverse between cultures, languages, and environments (Selmer & Lam, 2004). Commonly cited characteristics of an effective expatriate include good communication skills, openness, low neuroticism, moderate extroversion, interpersonal skills, cultural sensitivity, linguistic skill, ability to handle stress and sociability (Caligiuri, 2000; Jordan & Cartwright, 1998; Selmer & Lam, 2004). This list includes some of the commonly-cited characteristics that TCKs share. Many of these skills and traits cannot be obtained through conventional cross-cultural training (Selmer & Lam, 2004) and yet TCKs often develop these characteristics and abilities as a result of their mobile and multicultural lifestyle. Sending TCKs on overseas assignments as expatriates or even on business trips may reduce the amount of training and development needed (Selmer & 16.

(27) Lam, 2004), thus significantly cutting the costs of an overseas assignment while increasing the likelihood of a successful and effective assignment. Selmer & Lam (2004) also point to trainers of an organization’s cross-cultural training program for expatriates, mentors for expatriates on assignment, or someone who assess the performance of expatriates as potential roles that TCKs could effectively play within their organization while located in their home country. As one of the most visible and powerful TCKs today, American President Barack Obama is a good example of a TCK well-equipped for today’s world (Dewaele & Oudenhoven, 2009; Van Reken, 2008). He also appointed other TCKs to serve alongside him. Van Reken (2008) spoke of the emotional and psychological traits that these individuals share, along with other TCKs that may “exert great influence in the new administration.” She highlights some characteristics of a classic TCK profile that may be helpful in work: …someone with a global perspective who is socially adaptable and intellectually flexible. He or she is quick to think outside the box and can appreciate and reconcile different points of view. Beyond whatever diversity in background or appearance a TCK may bring to the party, there is a diversity of thought as well. (Van Reken, 2008). While these studies speak of the fit of TCK characteristics in the modern-day workplace, there are few recent empirical studies done on the related topics of TCK career choice process and the workplace adaptation of TCKs.. Career and Career Adaptability Career Theories Although Frank Parsons has been widely recognized as the founder of the movement for organized vocational guidance (Jones, 1994; Savickas, 2009), interest and studies in occupation to help individuals select suitable careers can be dated back to the late fifteenth century in literature (Zytowski, 1972). In 1909, Parsons outlined the first principles and organized framework in vocational choice. In summary, they are: 1) understanding of self 2) knowledge of factors relating to different lines of work and 3) reasoning of the relationship between the two. This idea of 17.

(28) matching individual characteristics with job factors was later developed into the traitand-factor theory and is still a cornerstone in most of today’s theories about occupation (Brown, 2002). In the time since Parsons first developed his ideas into a tripartite model more than a hundred years ago, a comprehensive web of theories and frameworks have emerged in the west, especially in the United States (Leung, 2008). The trait-and-factor theory went uncontested for the first few decades in the development of career theories, and dominated in the practice of career counseling. Even when challenges to the trait-andfactor theory spurred research interests and other theories emerged, it continued to guide practice for the most part. In 1951, Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma proposed a new theory apart from the traditional assumptions of the trait-and-factor theory. They maintained that career development is a long-term developmental process.. In 1972, Ginzberg defined. occupational choice as a process that lasts for as long as we continue to make decisions about our career. A person’s career is shaped by decisions in earlier career phases, as well as the constant changes in one’s work and life experiences. Individuals try to maximize their level of satisfaction by identifying the best alternative to satisfy their needs under the constraints of the employment environment (Ginzberg, 1972; Minor, 2002).. Career Adaptability Defined Savickas (2005) defines career adaptability as “a psychosocial construct that denotes an individual’s readiness and resources for coping with current and imminent vocational development tasks, occupational transitions, and personal traumas” (p. 51). According to Hall (2002), adaptability is a type of metacompetency, that is, a competency that when acquired, will readily enable an individual to pick up other skills, abilities, and competencies.. It is an important skill to have in career development (McCarthy,. O'Connell, & Hall 2005). Hall identifies flexibility, exploration, effective performance in various roles over an extended period of time, openness to new things and to accept new challenges, ability to learn from past mistakes, communication skills, and ease with turbulent change as some of the behaviors that characterize this competency (McCarthy, O'Connell, & Hall 2005). 18.

(29) The modern-day workplaces increasingly demand adaptability from its workers; however, it is hard to define what exactly constitutes adaptive behavior. In an effort to bring more clarity to the issue, Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, & Plamondon (2000) began putting together a taxonomy for adaptive performance. Adaptive performance is the newest component that was added by Campbell (1999) to the job performance model originally developed by Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, and Sager (1993). Pulakos et al. (2000) concluded that adaptive performance is a construct consisting of many dimensions. From their research, they came up with eight; 1) Handling emergencies or crisis situation, 2) Handling work stress, 3) Solving problems creatively, 4) Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations, 5) Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures 6) Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability 7) Demonstrating cultural adaptability, and 8) Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability.. They also found that different jobs. require different levels of competency in different dimensions of adaptive performance. Out of these eight dimensions, four dimensions seem particularly relevant to the TCK lifestyle.. They are the ability to solve problems creatively, interpersonal. adaptability, cultural adaptability, and dealing with uncertain and unpredictable situations.. Career Adaptability Theories In Career Construction Theory, Savickas (2005) describes adaptability as “the attitudes, competencies, and behaviors that individuals use in fitting themselves to work that suits them…Adaptability involves adjusting to vocational development tasks, occupational transitions, and personal traumas by solving problems that are usually unfamiliar, often ill-defined, and always complex.” (p.45-51). From the Self-construction perspective, Ibarra (1999) describes how people adjust to new positions and roles at work by negotiating with temporary self-concepts that they take on to serve as potential vocational identities. Ibarra gives the example of individuals who transition to more senior roles by first observing role models to identify potential identities. Then individuals will modify and refine these temporary versions of selfconcept as they evaluating them against their own internal standards and feedback from the outside world. Ibarra (1999) summarizes the findings of socialization researchers who have noted identity changes in people as they make career transitions. The cause of this change is attributed to the necessity of new skills, knowledge, abilities, behaviors, attitudes, and 19.

(30) patterns of interactions within the new roles, which brings about fundamental changes in an individual's concept of self. With time and experience, individuals come to a better understanding of what is required in a new role and of whom they want to be in that new role. They then adapt themselves to fit the demands of their new roles and readjust their self-concepts to adapt to the new situation.. Acculturation In today’s globalized world of work, individuals are likely to come into contact with different cultures within their careers. Acculturation, also known as cultural adaptation, then becomes a part of the adaptation process. It refers to the learning and the adopting of the norms and values in a new culture (Jandt, 2004).. In a commonly used model. developed by Berry, Kim, and Boski (1987), acculturation is examined in relation to two dimensions: value placed on maintaining original cultural identity and valued placed on maintaining relationship with groups in the new culture. The model describes four adaptation strategies. Assimilation takes place when one gives up one’s original cultural identity and fully embraces that of the new culture. Integration is when one becomes an integral part of the new culture while maintaining significant parts of the original culture. Separation (or segregation) is when the individual maintains his original culture and is uninvolved in the new culture. Marginalization happens when one loses his sense of cultural identity and feels as if he belongs to neither the original nor the new culture (Jandt, 2004).. Experiential Learning Theory and Model. In this study, David A. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model is used as the theoretical framework. Kolb asserts that adaptation come mainly through the process of learning (Kolb, 1984). His Experiential Learning Model has four components. The four stages in this cycle are 1) concrete experiences 2) reflective observation 3) abstract conceptualization and 4) active experimentation.. Concrete experiences provide the. material for reflection and observation. The stage of reflection and observation produces abstract concepts which will have new meanings. These new meanings are then tested out and used as a reference in creating new experiences. ELT can be applied to different 20.

(31) areas of life at the individual level, the organizational group level, and even at the societal level (Kolb & Kolb, 2009). As one of the most widely-known learning theories, the Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) differs from cognitive learning and behavioral learning theories in its emphasis on the significance of experiences in the learning and development process (Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 2001). It is based upon the works of Lewin, Dewey, and Piaget on the experiential learning process (Kolb, 1984). ELT pulls together the work of the major experiential learning scholars and have a few important propositions about learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2009): 1) “Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes” (p. 4). This means, that rather than focus on behavior, the emphasis should be on a process that enhances learning, which should include feedback to let students know how they are doing with their learning efforts. 2) “All learning is re-learning” (p. 5). Learning is encouraged when one’s beliefs and ideas are drawn out so that they can be evaluated, tested, and then integrated to form new thinking about a topic; it has a cyclical nature. 3) “Learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed models of adaptation to the world” (p. 5). Conflicts and disagreements exist among the different ways to deal with the world. These conflicts are what drive the learning process. When one moves back and forth between conflicting ways and learns to resolve these disagreements, learning happens. 4) “Learning is a holistic process of adaptation” (p. 5). Learning involves the whole person; it calls on a person to feel, think, do, and perceive. 5) “Learning results from synergetic transactions between the person and the environment” (p. 5).Our learning pattern results from the pattern in which we regularly interact with our environment. The choices we make have an effect on what events we will experience, and since these events affect our future, we essentially shape ourselves and dictate our lives through the decisions we make. 6) “Learning is the process of creating knowledge” (p. 5). In ELT, learning takes place in the process when experiences are transformed into knowledge (Kolb, 1984).. The reason that Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model is chosen as a theoretical framework for this study is because of its emphasis on learning as a continual process, 21.

(32) and on the importance of experiences in the process of learning. An important source of information for this study is the life experiences of the twenty TCKs, what they have gained through their TCK experiences, how their reflections and observations have translated their experiences into concepts and their unique interpretations of the world, and how their knowledge and interpretations are tested through encountering new situations each time they move. The learning that they have done earlier in their TCK experiences are now being tested again in a new environment (the workplace). By resolving the conflicts and disagreements between what they have learned in the past and what is happening in their workplaces now, TCKs will have yet another opportunity to learn and adapt. The continuous and experiential nature of learning in the lives of the TCKs are captured in this model.. Summary In the literature review section, the focus is on the separate issues of TCKs, career theories, adaptability, and the experiential learning model. First, the TCK profile and some of the issues that they encounter were examined. Existing literature on TCKs and work were also presented. A few career theories that focus on career as a lifelong developmental process were then discussed and theories on adaptation were briefly explored, including characteristics of an adaptable person, and also acculturation. Finally, the experiential learning model was explained. To the best of my knowledge, there are few studies specifically on TCKs and their career choices and adaptability in the workplace. A few studies identified TCKs to be potentially competent expatriates. These studies point to the characteristics, qualities, and experiences of TCKs as their strengths in the increasingly globalized workplace (Selmer & Lam, 2002, 2004). Although Jurtan’s (2011) literature review did conclude that TCKs have the characteristics needed to spearhead organizational change processes, I did not come across any empirical research that links the skills and abilities that TCKs have acquired throughout their multicultural and mobile lifestyle to their effectiveness in the workplace.. 22.

(33) CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS This chapter explains the research methods involved and the research approach taken to conduct this study. It covers the research framework, research procedure, research participants and sampling, data collection, data analysis, and research quality.. Research Approach This study takes a qualitative approach because the topic is explorative in nature. I started with the intent to simply examine the experiences of twenty TCKs in the hopes to understand and gain more insight about TCK experiences in regards to their career choice and their adaptation to the work place. The study relies on the TCK participants’ own interpretations of their experiences to create a picture of what their career decision and adjustment processes may look like. A qualitative approach is appropriate here because I am attempting to understand the meaning of the TCK experience in the context of career choice (Merriam, 2009, p.2). Rather than trying to establish a cause and effect relationship between the TCK experience and the path of career development for an individual, or “describing the distribution of some attribute” (Merriam, 2009, p.5) among the TCKs, I was more interested in exploring different aspects of the TCK experiences, unveiling the TCK views of the world, and how TCKs as individuals may view the impact of their past experiences and assign significance to their careers so far and how those experiences shape their current and future decisions. The study is focused on the TCK understanding of their own experiences and the process that they go through as they adapt in their chosen careers. Qualitative research methods allow researchers to generate descriptive data through the participants’ own written, spoken, or visual works and observable behavior as a way to get to know the participant as individuals and to find out how they define their world through their personal history, struggles, victories and interactions with the world around them (Bogdan & Taylor, 1975). This study was conducted from an interpretive or constructive perspective, which is described by Cresswell (2007) as a world view where individuals seek for understanding in the world within which they inhabit.. They develop their own meaning for the 23.

(34) experiences they encounter.. These meanings are complex and are often negotiated. socially and historically, meaning that they are formed through interaction with others and through historical and cultural norms present in the lives of individuals. This type of information are most appropriately generated and analyzed through a qualitative approach to produce useful knowledge. According to Merriam (2009, p. 24), phenomenology is “a study of people’s conscious experience of their life-world.” It is a suitable approach for studying human experiences that are “affective, emotional and often intense” (Merriam, 2009, p. 26). The TCK experience certainly falls under this category.. The desired outcome of the. phenomenological approach is to obtain the essence of a phenomenon. (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002) After having read the research, readers should have a better understanding of what it is like to go through the TCK experience or phenomenon (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). Specifically, this research uses the biographical phenomenology method or life history interviewing, which allows for the sharing of a series of events in an individual’s life through his or her own words (Bakar & Abdullah, 2008; Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009). It allows the researcher to examine the life of an individual, in the context of the world around him. By examining the events that have taken place in a person’s life, one can have a better understanding of how a person came to be at where he/she is currently (Hagemaster, 1992).. Research Framework The problem identified in the study is that there is a lack of research on TCKs, specifically in the area related to their career choice and career adaptation. This study aims to study the issue by examining how their TCK experiences directly or indirectly affect their career decisions and how they adapt to the challenges at work. The research framework for this study is based upon Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model. When TCKs go through their life experiences, their experiences are interpreted, reflected upon, and evaluated. After having done that, their experiences are internalized and they learn from what they have gone through. This learning shapes their self-identity and builds certain characteristics. In the learning process, they develop knowledge, skills, abilities, and other capabilities.. When they encounter a new experience, learned 24.

(35) knowledge, skills, and abilities are drawn upon and tested. At this point, the cycle repeats itself again. Figure 3.1 is an illustration of this cycle.. ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION. CONCRETE EXPERIENCE. KSAOs are tried out in new situations.. TCK life experience.. ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION. REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION. Learning from experience which shape identity and characteristics. Develop KSAOs.. Interpretation, reflection, and evaluation of TCK experience.. Figure 3.1. Research framework.. 25.

(36) Research Procedure The different phases of the research procedure are described in this section. Some of the steps outlined below occur simultaneously, continually, or repeatedly throughout several phases of the research. For the sake of simplicity however, it is illustrated as a step-by-step procedure in Figure 3.2. The first step in the research was to generate ideas and topics of interest. The viability of conducting the research, the issue of the sampling population and the availability and reach of the participants were considered and discussed at this stage before a final topic was determined. When the final topic was chosen, literature reviews on TCKs and career choice and adjustment were done to find out what research and information are already done on the subject. This was important in determining an angle from which to discuss the topic as knowledge gaps in the current pool of literature were identified. The research method and the research framework were then selected based on the literature reviewed, research purpose and research questions. I began the participatory observation stage to help gain more understanding about the participants under study by observing the TCKs around me. Initial interview questions were drafted according to the research purpose, questions, and literature review. The interview questions were deliberated, refined and reduced through reviews and discussions. The interview questions underwent peer and expert review. The peers were classmates who understood qualitative research methods and have knowledge and experience in the interview process.. The questions were also. reviewed by two TCKs for clarity of content. Two pilot tests were then conducted. After the pilot test, the list of questions were again revised and finalized. Between interviews, the questions were frequently reviewed and were fine-tuned. Twelve interviews were done in person and eight conducted over Skype.. The. interview recordings were transcribed and checked. The collected data were analyzed and interpreted. Results and findings of the research were consolidated and written up.. 26.

(37) Identify Research Topic. Review Literature. Determine Research Purpose & Questions. Select Research Method. Select Research Framework. Conduct Pilot Interviews. Collect Data. Analyze Data. Conclude Research Findings. Figure 3.2. Research procedure.. 27.

(38) Participants and Sampling Criteria for Participants The participants of the study were chosen through purposeful sampling, more specifically, through snowball sampling, also known as network sampling (Merriam, 2009). Initially, the interview list started off with a few TCKs that I knew. Then I asked these participants to recommend other TCKs who may be good candidates, meaning that they fit the criteria and would be willing to share their experiences. Participants mostly recommended their TCK siblings and friends. The participants of this study are TCKs who have lived in at least one other culture that is different from that of their parent’s home country for at least two years between the ages 8-18.. Exactly how long it takes to develop third-cultureness, as explained by. Pollock (1998), depends on individual characteristics.. However, the criteria that they. live abroad for at least two years is set to ensure that the participants have had some time to get familiar with and to adjust to living outside of their passport country. Although an individual’s developmental years span approximately from age 0 to 18, the criteria for this study is that they have lived abroad between the ages 8-18 because that is approximately when they begin to spend more time in school, where they would be under longer exposure to the host culture and develop the third culture identity (Fail et al., 2004). It is also when they start to have more conscious memory of their experiences. These TCKs also have at least 1 year of working experience at the time of the interview. This criterion allows for the collection of data on how career choices were made and ensures that the participants have experiences to share concerning the career adaptation process and strategies they employ.. Research Participants Eight women and twelve men were interviewed (See Figure 3.3). The participants were between the ages 25-38 and the average age was 30.7 (See Figure 3.4). Four TCKs moved abroad for the first time for educational purposes, without their parents. They lived with host families or in boarding schools. Sixteen of the TCKs first moved abroad with their families because of their parents’ occupation. Out of the sixteen, half are from. 28.

(39) diplomatic families, one from a military family, and one from a missionary family. The other six TCKs had parents who worked in various jobs and businesses (See Figure 3.5). Eleven of these TCKs have lived in two countries prior to turning 18. The other nine TCKs have lived in three or more countries before the age of 18, and up to as many as eight countries (see Figure 3.6). On average, they lived in 3.15 countries before the age of eighteen. The twenty TCKs in this diverse group work in different fields, ranging from engineering, to education and media, architecture, technology, research, business, finance and more. Based on information provided by nineteen of the twenty participants (one participant wished to keep her work details confidential), the average full-time work experience is 6.1 years. The most experienced participant has been working for sixteen years; the least experienced participant has worked for 1.75 years (See Figure 3.7). See Table 3.1 for a list of participants and a summary of their background information and relevant experiences.. 29.

(40) Female (8) 40% Female (8) Male (12). Male (12) 60%. Figure 3.3 Percentage of male and female TCK participants.. 36-40 years old 5%. 25-29 years old 30%. 25-29 years old (6) 30-35 years old (13) 36-40 years old (1). 30-35 years old 65%. Figure 3.4 Age distribution of the 20 TCK participants.. 30.

(41) Diplomatic Family (8) Military Family (1) Personal Education 20%. Parents in Other Businesses and Jobs 30%. Diplomatic Family 40%. Missionary Family (1) Parents in Other Businesses and Jobs (6) Personal Education (4). Military Family 5% Missionary Family 5%. Figure 3.5 Reasons for TCK participants to go abroad.. 2 countries (10). 6 countries 5% 5 countries 5%. 3 countries (4). 8 countries 5%. 4 countries (3) 5 countries (1) 6 countries (1) 8 countries (1). 4 countries 15%. 2 countries 50%. 3 countries 20%. Figure 3.6 Number of countries participants lived in before 18.. 31.

(42) 13-15 years 5% 10-12 years 5%. 16-18 years 5%. 1-3 years 21%. 1-3 years (4) 4-6 years (6) 7-9 years (6) 10-12 years (1) 13-15 years (1) 16-18 years (1). 7-9 years 32%. 4-6 years 32%. Figure 3.7 Participants and their years of work experience. 32.

(43) Table 3.1. Participant Information Name. Gender Age Nationality. Countries lived in. Years working. Title/Job Content/(Industry). Adam 1. M. 30. Taiwan. Taiwan Belize USA. 2.5. . Research engineer (LED Manufacturer). Beth 2. F. 34. Taiwan. Philippines Taiwan. 8. . Telephone operator (Hospitality) Sales administrator (Electronics) Account manager (Electronics).  . Cecilia 3. F. 31. Taiwan. Brazil Taiwan China. 7. . . Daphne 4. F. 31. Taiwan. Taiwan Paraguay Brazil China. 7.5. .    . Personal assistant/executive assistant (Advertising and Media) Executive assistant (Automation) Client management/product development/exhibitions (Trading company) Manage branch office of Spanish firm (Trading company) Overseas position in postsales services (Manufacturing) Factory management (Manufacturing) Product management (Manufacturing). (continued). 33.

(44) Table 3.1. (continued) Name. Eddie 5. Gender Age Nationality. M. 30. Taiwan/ Peru. Countries lived in. Years working. Peru Chile Panama Taiwan Dominican Rep. Paraguay Italy United States United Kingdom. 5.5. Title/Job Content/(Industry).    . Assist project management and design work (Design) Teacher (Education) Marketing specialist and designer (Wireless) Marketing manager (Wireless). Francis 6. M. 27. Taiwan. Taiwan Italy USA China. 1.75. . Analyst (Paper manufacturing). Greg 7. M. 38. Korea. Korea Paraguay USA China Taiwan. 16. . Purchasing, sales, and management (Supermarket) Business owner (Trade) Purchase Orders, arrangement of goods, delivery (Clothing) Handles productionrelated issues (Machinery).   . Henri 8. M. 25. Taiwan. Taiwan Italy United States The Netherlands United Kingdom. 4. . Sales engineer/Hosting engineer (IT). Iris 9. F. 32. Taiwan. Taiwan United States South Korea China. 9. . High school Chinese teacher (Education) Boarding school teacher (Education) Consultant (Educational consultant).  . (continued). 34.

(45) Table 3.1. (continued) Name. Gender Age Nationality. Countries lived in. Years working. Title/Job Content/(Industry). Jasper 10. M. 31. Australian/ HK. Hong Kong Australia. 6. . Architect (Architecture). Keith 11. M. 30. Taiwan. Taiwan Paraguay Nicaragua Philippines. 5. . Trainer/operations (Online gaming) Trader (Finance). Taiwan Saudi Arabia Italy United States Russia. 5.5. Mitchell 12. M. 33. Taiwan.    . Researcher (Research institute) Expo organizer (Government-funded organization) Diplomat (Government). Lionel 13. M. 34. Taiwan. Taiwan United Kingdom. 13. . Music arranger (Education and Media). Natalie 14. F. 34. Taiwan. Peru Chile Panama Taiwan Dominican Rep. Paraguay United Kingdom. 2.7.  . Marketing assistant (IT) Editor (Publishing). Oscar 15. M. 26. Taiwan. Swaziland Taiwan Israel United States China. 3. Patricia 16. F. 30. Dominican Taiwan Republic Dominican Rep. United States. 8.7.  Assistant English teacher (Education)  Export sales manager (Paper Manufacturing) . . Assurance and compliance work/lead audit engagements (Accounting/Finance) Revenue accounting (Media). (continued). 35.