Reading Fluency Instruction

and pragmatic) present in text to organize the text into meaningful phrases and read with correct prosody (i.e., reading that sounds like speaking). Struggling readers are often characterized as reading in a monotone without expression or with inappropriate phrasing. Because prosody and reading comprehension seem to have a reciprocal relationship, prosody is an important area of focus for fluency instruction. Using prosody correctly is another indication of oral reading fluency that the reader comprehends what he or she has read. (Khor et al., 2014)

2.6

Most literacy educators consider fluency to be a critical component of reading development (e.g., Rasinski, Blachowicz, & Lems, 2006; Samuels & Farstrup, 2006).

Fluency, seen primarily in terms of rate measures, has become a driving force in reading instruction. Although fluent reading is critical to later reading success (Kuhn

& Stahl, 2003; Rasinski et al., in press), it is only one component of literacy learning.

Effective instructional approaches for fluency development such as fluency-oriented reading instruction (FORI; Stahl, Heubach, & Holcomb, 2005), wide fluency-oriented reading instruction (Wide FORI or Wide Reading; Kuhn et al., 2006) and the fluency development lesson (FDL; Rasinski, Padak, Linek, & Sturtevant, 1994) view the comprehension of texts, rather than an increase in reading rate, as the primary goal.

These approaches all recognize that the development of automaticity, prosody, and reading comprehension occur through the scaffolding reading of a range of texts. It is the various forms of supported reading (for example, echo, choral, partner, and repeated reading) that allow learners to engage with and learn from the material they are reading.

2.6.1

Among the studies on how to improve students’ reading fluency, Cunningham

(2000) suggests that guided oral reading, especially repeated reading, leads to improved oral reading fluency. More examples could be found in Wang’s (2013) research. A 12-week study was conducted aimed to examine the effects of applying guided repeated oral reading instruction on English vocabulary ability, oral reading fluency for the 5th graders with low English achievement in Taiwan and to understand their feedback toward the experimental instruction. Nine low English achievers served as participants in this study, whose English performance in the previous semester was ranged from the bottom 25% among the same graders. Data were collected through the pre- and post-tests of vocabulary ability and oral reading fluency as well as a questionnaire of their feedback toward the guided repeated reading and of their self-confidence in English learning. The results of the study indicated that guided oral reading improved participants’ English vocabulary ability and oral reading fluency significantly. Furthermore, it also enhanced their self- confidence on English reading. However, participants’ spelling ability was not improved significantly.

2.6.2 Repeated Reading (echo, choral, partner)

Repetition of text allows for the kind of consistent practice that is important to readers. And, drawing from both the Samuels and the Logan theories of automaticity, repetition allows for the deepening of traces (Logan, 1997) and the freeing up of attention (Samuels, 2006). Moreover, Logan pointed out that, in addition to developing automatic word recognition, repeated readings allow learners to establish prosody, identify appropriate phrasing, and determine meaning. Thus difficulties encountered in a text can be successfully solved as the text is read repeatedly and, as a result, similar difficulties are likely to be more readily solved when encountered in another text. Morgan and Lyon (cited in Dowhower, 1989) reported that after 3

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months of practicing the RR technique, junior high poor readers in their study made nearly 12 month’s progress in less than 7 months’ time on a standardized comprehension test. One research-based strategy that has proven effective in increasing students’ oral reading fluency is the repeated readings (RR) method.

Rereading a text, as in an RR exercise, is an effective strategy in several areas. First, rereading the same passage has been using Readers Theatre to foster fluency 165 shown to significantly increase reading rate and accuracy (Carver & Hofman, 1981 ; Chomsky, 1976 ; Dahl, 1974 ; Dowhower, 1987 ; Rashotte & Torgesen, 1985 ; Samuels, 1979/1997) and the ability to segment text into meaningful chunks (Dowhower, 1987). Second, many scholars report that rereading a passage significantly increases comprehension (Chard, Simmons & Kameenui, 1998; Sindelar, Monda & O’Shea, 1990; Weinstein & Cooke, 1992). Third, the benefits appear to carry over to unpracticed texts. Dowhower’s review of relevant research indicated that having the student practice one passage to a predetermined set rate of speed leads to increases in both fluency and comprehension in fresh passages (Dowhower, 1987;

Dowhower, 1989). Further, the results of the Garfield Reading Attitudes Survey showed that most students felt they were able to read ― well and ― fast. For example, a student named ―Evan said, ―I can read fine. I can read really fast. 120 words per minutes is nothing. I can read a whole comic book in less than twenty minutes. (Observation notes, October 6, 2006)

2.6.3 Read Aloud

Brabham and Lynch-Brown (2002), Jacobs, Morrison, and Swinyard (2000) found that 100% of elementary teachers read aloud several times a week. As evidenced by the research, throughout the decades teachers have been reading more and more often to their students. Barrentine (1996) reported that Harste, Woodward,

and Burke (1984) identified that read aloud also instructed how stories work, modeled page turning, demonstrated the reading process, expressed how to monitor ones comprehension, taught inflection, showed how language works, and presented written language. Still, teachers read aloud for many reasons including the following:

to express thematic content (Moss, 1995), to teach literature-based math lessons (Whitin & Wilde, 1992), and to demonstrate the reading process (Harste, Woodward,

& Burke, 1984; Holdaway, 1979). Through a Read-Aloud, a teacher can model reading strategies and demonstrate the ways in which the language of the books is different from spoken language (Hedrick & Pearish, 2003)

2.6.4 Scaffolding Silent Reading

To help students transfer their successful oral reading skills to successful and effective silent reading practice, teachers may provide them with the necessary support, guidance, structure, accountability, and monitoring (Reutzel et al., 2008, ). In Scaffolding Silent Reading (ScSR), teachers monitor students during practice through individual reading conferences in which students read aloud, discuss the book, answer questions, and set goals for completing the reading of the book within a specific time.

Among the empirical studies about reading fluency instruction, few studies mentioned the instruction about using Manga. For example, Kunai (2007) stated that built-in scaffolding is another potential benefit of using Manga. By reading the same story in English, students may be less anxious and be more comfortable guessing the meanings of unfamiliar words from context. The visual aspect should also help support reading comprehension for all students, even those who are totally unfamiliar with Manga. In ScSR, teachers monitor students during practice through individual reading conferences in which students read aloud, discuss the book, answer questions, and set goals for completing the reading of the book within a specific time compared

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to SSR(Sustained Silent Reading), where teachers did not provide students with feedback nor did they actively monitor their reading practice. Reutzel et al., (2008) investigated in their experiment that two reading fluency practice treatments not only facilitated students in the at-risk schools to make better-than-national-average gains in WCPM reading rates but also helped to close the gap between these students’

beginning and end-of-year reading fluency performance, as compared with 50th- percentile national fluency norms. The students’ accountability lies that the learners read aloud to the teacher, answer teacher questions, set personal goals for completing the reading of a book within a timeframe, and complete one or more book response projects. More studies approved the instruction of ScSR, ― students who are averse to reading are unlikely to benefit from DEAR or SSSR (Hasbrouck, 2006) unless they are provided with a range of options such as scaffolding silent reading (Reutzel, Fawson, & Smith, 2008).