以漫畫為教學題材對台灣國中生英語閱讀流暢性之效益研究

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學英語學系碩士學位論文 Master’s Thesis Graduate Institute of English National Taiwan Normal University. 以漫畫為教學題材對台灣國中生英語閱讀流暢性之效益研究 The Effects of Manga on the Reading Fluency of EFL Junior High Students in Taiwan. 指導教授：李宜倩博士 Advisor : Dr. Yi-chien Lee 研究生：施伯憲 Eric Po-hsien Shih. 中華民國一○六年九月. i.

(2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Pursuing further studies has always been my dream. After I took the chance to partake in a TESOL program in Australia, I started enjoying integrating interesting activities or authentic materials in my teaching. However, I still thought what I had learned was inadequate and thus, studying in a summer program became my next lifelong goal. Nevertheless, my thesis couldn’t have been accomplished without excellent people around me. My deepest gratitude goes to the following people. Firstly, I’d like to dedicate my sincere and deepest gratitude to my dearest advisor Dr. Yi-chien Lee, who kept giving me valuable suggestions and advice while I was lost in my thesis. I need to express my apologies for all the inconvenience caused because of my personal and family matters. I also would like to thank two committee members of my oral defense, Dr. Yeu-ting Liu and Dr. Wei-wen Chen, for their helpful suggestions. Secondly, I’d like to thank my beloved and intelligent wife, Tina, for all the dedications to the accomplishment of my thesis. She’s always been with me in the process of my mission impossible. Without her help and support, I wouldn’t have made it happen. Thirdly, the completion of my thesis should also be attributed to the support and help offered by my classmates, Victor, Mandy, and Francis, who have always been there backing me up through ups and downs. Next, my gratitude also goes to the students of Class 901 and 905, who were my inspirations. Besides, I would like to dedicate this thesis to my beloved family members: my handsome father, beautiful mother, pretty wife, my darling boy and daughter. Last but not least, I would like to express our gratitude to the anonymous reviewers for their specific and useful comments. Those comments helped me improve the quality of this paper. ii.

(3) TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vi Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 1.1 The Need to Investigate the Effect of Manga ............................................ 2 1.2 The Need to Assess Students’ Reading Fluency ........................................ 5 1.3 Purpose of the Study .................................................................................. 5 1.4 Research Questions: ................................................................................... 6 1.5 Significance of the Present Study............................................................... 6 1.6 Organization of the Study .......................................................................... 7 1.7 Definitions of Terms ................................................................................... 7 Chapter Two : Literature Review .................................................................................... 10 2.1 Related Learning Theories about Manga Instruction ..................................... 10 2.1.1 Dual Coding Theory........................................................................ 10 2.1.2 Multimodalities ............................................................................... 11 2.1.3 Repetition Hypothesis ..................................................................... 12 2.1.4 Mental Model Theory ..................................................................... 13 2.1.5 Visual Input Enhancement .............................................................. 13 2.2 Studies on Visual Aid ............................................................................... 14 2.3 The Effects of Visual Aids on Reading.................................................... 14 2.3.1 Different Types of Visual Aids in Reading..................................... 16 2.4 Manga Reading ........................................................................................ 20 2.5 Reading Fluency....................................................................................... 23 2.6 Reading Fluency Instruction .................................................................... 26 2.7 Assessment of Reading Fluency .............................................................. 30 2.8 Relationship Between Repeated Reading and Reading Fluency............. 32 2.9 Summary .................................................................................................. 33 Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................... 34 3.1 Participants...................................................................................................... 34 3.2 Material Selection ........................................................................................... 34 3.2.1 Comparison of Readability of Selected Manga and Textbook ....... 35 3.3 Procedure of the Main Study .......................................................................... 37 3.3.1 Instrumentation................................................................................ 39 3.3.2 During the Program ......................................................................... 40 3.4 Data-Collection Procedure ............................................................................. 45 3.5 Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 45 Chapter Four: Results And Discussion ............................................................................ 47 4.1 Overview......................................................................................................... 47 4.2 Results ............................................................................................................. 47 4.2.1 Reading Rates.................................................................................. 47 4.3 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 50 Chapter Five: Conclusion ................................................................................................ 52 5.1 Limitation:.................................................................................................. 52 5.2 Directions for future research: ................................................................... 54 5.3 Pedagogical implications: .......................................................................... 55 5.4 Conclusions:............................................................................................... 56 References: ....................................................................................................................... 58 Appendix A: Comic Section from the Textbook ............................................................. 61 iii.

(4) Appendix B: Reading Materials for the Treatment.......................................................... 62 Appendix C: Pre-test passage from GEPT ....................................................................... 65 Appendix D: Adapted Reading Materials for the Control Group .................................... 66 Appendix E Onomatopoeia Acitvity Worksheet ............................................................. 68 Appendix F: Oral Fluency Assessment Roster ................................................................ 70 Appendix G: Manga Reading Worksheet ........................................................................ 71. iv.

(5) List of Tables Table 1. Reading Rates of pre- and post-test of the experimental group ......................... 48 Table 1.1. Paired Samples Correlations of Experimental Group ..................................... 48 Table 2. Reading Rates of pre- and post-test of the control group .................................. 49 Table 2.2 Paired Samples Correlations of Control Group ............................................... 49 Table 3. Mean Scores for Pre-Posttest and Gains on Reading Fluency .......................... 49. v.

(6) List of Figures Figure 1 : Schedule of the Manga Reading Program ....................................................... 38 Figure 2. Comparison of pre- and post-reading rates in WCPM .................................... 49. vi.

(7) 中文摘要過去幾十年來，視覺輔助長時間被運用在語言教學上，且在文本理解以及延長記憶有著正向的效果。閱讀書籍(例如：漫畫)在臺灣十分普遍並且一直深受青少年的歡迎。多數學者亦指出漫畫在教導學生閱讀敘事類文本及增進學生閱讀能力方面是項有效的題材。實施漫畫教學對青少年是合適的；然而，雖然先前的研究已指出漫畫對學習者的閱讀能力有正向的效果，卻極少提及在臺灣的國中教學環境中，以漫畫的視覺輔助來幫助英文外語的學習者的閱讀流暢度之可行性及實用性。受到目前閱讀興趣及視覺輔助相關議題的激勵，本研究旨在探討以漫畫為教學題材對臺灣國中生英語閱讀流暢性之效益研究。研究對象為北臺灣一所國中的兩班共三十九名學生，實驗為期八週，以每週一節實施；其中十七名是程度相對較高之學習者，另二十二名為較低成就學習者。研究者將能力較低班級作為實驗組實施英語漫畫閱讀，程度較高的班級則為對照組閱讀無視覺輔助的改編漫畫文本，並施以前、後測來瞭解漫畫題材是否有助於增進學習者的閱讀流暢度。研究結果顯示：實驗組及對照組閱讀流暢度均有顯著的進步，從實驗組學生整體令人滿意的評量回饋可推知漫畫題材融入教學是可行的，研究者建議英語教師可整合不同類型並有趣的英文漫畫融入學期課程或補救教學中，進以提升學習者長期的語言學習並且增進其閱讀習慣。. 關鍵詞：漫畫、閱讀流暢度. vii.

(8) ABSTRACT Over the past few decades, visuals have been used in language teaching for a long time and are believed to have the facilitative effects on text comprehension and retention (Glenberg Langston et al., 1992). Reading materials like Manga (Japanese comic books) have been common and popular with many teenagers in Taiwan (Huang, 2006; Tong, 2002). Aliyah (2013) also indicated that Manga is an effective media to teach reading narrative texts to improve students’ reading ability. The implementation of Manga is suitable for teenagers or adolescents. Nevertheless, though previous studies have suggested the positive effect of Manga on learners’ reading proficiency, little research mentioned the feasibility and practicality of the visual aspect of Manga to facilitate EFL learners’ reading fluency in Junior High settings in Taiwan. With the inspiration of current interest and issues in reading comprehension and visual aids, this study aimed at examining the effectiveness of using Manga on reading fluency of junior high school students in Taiwan. The participants were 39 ninth graders from two classes (17 for higherproficiency class; 22, lower-proficiency class) in a junior high in Northern Taiwan. The researcher used the lower-proficiency class as the experimental group with English Manga and higher-proficiency class as the control group reading adapted texts without visual aids within eight periods of classes. Pre-test and post-test were conducted to examine if the integration of Manga facilitated the reading fluency of the participants. The analyses demonstrated that students from both groups improved in terms of reading fluency. The overall satisfactory outcomes of evaluation of the intervention from the experimental group represent the feasibility of incorporating Manga. The. viii.

(9) researcher suggests that more teachers utilize interesting Manga of English version as part of the makeup course or even main course to promote long-term language learning and reading habit.. Keywords: Manga, reading fluency. ix.

(10) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION With the implementation of 12-year Compulsory Education and Comprehensive Assessment Program for Junior High School Students (CAP) in Taiwan, reading literacy has become much more important for junior high students. Compared with the previous senior high entrance examination, Basic Competence Test (BCT), the reading sections in CAP focus more on longer sentences and global comprehension, making junior high English teachers call for more reading exercises and practices. Moreover, National Reading Panel (NRP) (2000) indicated that "A child’s success in school— and in life— is dependent upon his ability to read, among which, reading fluency has been an indicator to distinguish a skilled or a poor reader. Fluent reading occurs when individuals read rapidly and accurately while comprehending what is read [Lyon et al., 2003; National Reading Panel (NRP), 2000]. Nevertheless, Taiwan PISA 2009 short report indicated that only 5.2% of Taiwanese students reach level five out of six. Top 10% of students in Taiwan may find difficulties competing with the top 10% of students in Shanghai or Hong Kong in terms of reading literacy. Moreover, students who read for enjoyment are more proficient readers than students who do not read for enjoyment. In Taiwan, 17.3% of students reported that they do not read for enjoyment, which is lower than the average of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Developments (OECD) countries, also lower than most reference countries except for Shanghai. In general, the performance of Taiwanese students in reading literacy increases in proportion to the time spent on reading for enjoyment. The results elaborated that reading for enjoyment has more impact on 15-year-old students’ reading literacy performance 1.

(11) than the amount of time spent in reading. Education Parenting Family Lifestyle, one of the well-known educational magazines in Taiwan, conducted a survey to 937 middle school principals in Taiwan in 2013 indicating that 77 percent of the principals thought that the biggest barrier and obstacle to encourage students to enjoy reading came from the pressure from exams and also the passive learning attitudes toward reading among peers, thus decreasing students’ reading time. The results also came from the lack of the reading habit among junior high students in Taiwan. The researcher of the study found that many of his students rarely volunteered to read in their spare time, let alone the English versions of novels or other reading materials. Without enough interesting supplementary reading materials to read, students often have test anxiety on English reading comprehension. Moreover, a great number of teachers in Taiwan still use conventional teaching methods to teach reading. According to Aliyah (2013), students usually feel bored and inactive toward learning since the traditional pedagogy is monotonous. In the same fashion, Krashen (1993: 7) suggested that students usually feel bored in reading, thus making them have difficulties in the learning activities. Such being the case, the researcher finds it urgent to incorporate different reading activities or reading materials in the hope of enhancing students’ reading competence.. 1.1 The Need to Investigate the Effect of Manga In order to incorporate different teaching materials of reading, the researcher recalled that he once had a 7th grade student, who was a low-achiever in terms of the academic performance except history in 2010. He was passive toward learning in almost every subject. He rarely had confidence in learning and didn’t perform well in academic field. In his first periodical exam, he almost failed all the subjects except 2.

(12) history, on which he got full marks. This phenomenon did shock not just other teachers but also the researcher. After the interview followed by the exam, he mentioned that he had made it a habit to check out Manga relevant to Chinese history. He finished reading all the relevant episodes of the content of the Manga. He elaborated that the language used in comic books was easily comprehended and the pictures did help him have better pictures of the plots and characters even though he didn’t simply enjoy reading novels without illustrations. In addition, the classmates of his mentioned that he checked out and finished six comic books in just one day, implying that the student read those Manga at a fast pace. They were amazed by the reading speed and even made fun of him that if he could use that passion toward learning, he could have placed top 3 in the periodical exam. The aforementioned example is in line with what Allington (1994) pointed out, in which that personal interest― remains the most potent factor in the development of reading processes (p. 21). Moreover, the researcher also perceived that the students at his school usually finished reading the Manga section attached with each unit once they got the new English textbooks. (See Appendix A) Currently, the publishers of the textbooks have been integrating selected grammar or vocabulary into each Manga section. The learners’ could enjoy reading the content without worrying about the words they don‘t understand. Third, the researcher had interest in learning Japanese and made a habit of reading Japanese Manga as an authentic material to learn not just the language of Japanese itself but also the cultures and expressions as well. Reading Manga is one way to learn about Japanese culture, folklore, food, traditions, and expressions. He could not comprehend the context every now and then because the target language of the selected Manga was not his mother tongue. However, with the facilitation of 3.

(13) the picture cues, the researcher could guess or comprehend the meaning from the context. Comics are already prone to a swifter reading than isolated images, for the mere reason that they are meant to be read as part of a series, and thus always push the reader onwards, towards the next panel (Ibid., 20; Groensteen 1991, 46) From this statement, the researcher presumes that may explain why the aforementioned 7th grade student read history comic book at a fast pace. Inspired by the successful experience from the 7th grade student, the Manga section from the textbooks, and the researcher’s personal experience in learning Japanese, the researcher attempts to investigate whether incorporating Manga into English teaching would facilitate learners’ reading fluency. There is a wealth of research supporting the use of comic books—Stephen Krashen even devotes more than twenty pages to promoting the advantages of comic- book reading and debunking common objections in The Power of Reading (2004). According to him, pleasure reading is one of the only methods for increasing spelling skills and vocabulary: ―Large quantities of light, 'low risk' reading... in which they [students] can skip words without fear of missing anything that affects their grade, will result in vocabulary growth and overall language competence (1989, p. 455). This, he points out, will make academic reading easier in the long run. Pleasure reading may help develop native-like instincts for idiomatic and problematic areas such as articles and prepositions, as well as sentence structure and general syntax (p. 443). Furthermore, the Manga panel is not text-heavy, which plays a very important role in reading rhythm (Baetens and Lefèvre 1993, 18), as text invariably requires a different level of concentration than the comics image, which is typically iconic and underdetermined (McCloud 1994, 31-42). Provided that these graphic codes have been mastered by the reader, they allow for meaning to be conveyed instantly and simply, thereby 4.

(14) allowing the reader to, once again, move on quickly to the next panel. Again, Aliyah (2013) pointed out that reading comprehension is facilitated with the help of visual aspect of Manga, even for students totally unfamiliar with Manga. Inspired by the student’s experience and the empirical studies, the researcher would like to incorporate English Manga as a teaching tool in the hope of facilitating learners’ reading fluency and improving students’ academic performance in CAP with the assistance of possibly positive visual aspect of Manga.. 1.2 The Need to Assess Students’ Reading Fluency The National Reading Panel suggested that to become good readers, children must develop the ability to read words in text in an accurate and fluent manner and the ability to apply comprehension strategies consciously and deliberately as they read. Stanovich (1991) stated with emphasis that reading fluency is not only a distinguishing characteristic of good readers and poor readers but also a reliable predictor of reading comprehension problems. Furthermore, Zutell & Rasinski (1991) urged that teachers make judgments about students’ progress in reading fluency by means of Read Aloud. Such being the case, the researcher tried to examine students’ reading fluency via Reading Aloud, and Timed readings (Samuels, 1979) in this study.. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The main purpose of the present study is to explore the effect of Manga as an instructional tool on junior high EFL students’ English reading fluency. In the study, reading fluency was measured by WCPM from pre-reading and post-reading of Manga. It is hoped that the present research may contribute to contemporary knowledge of the incorporation of Manga and its possible effect on building up English reading fluency of junior high EFL students in Taiwan. 5.

(15) 1.4 Research Questions: On the basis of the study purposes, the research question is proposed: What is the effect of incorporating Manga with the practice of repeated reading as an instructional tool on EFL learners’ reading fluency?. 1.5 Significance of the Present Study The significance of the present study can be recognized as follows. First, though the effects of visual aids or Manga on reading comprehension have been supported by many studies (Gambrell & Jawitz, 1993; Hudson, 1982; Liu, 2004; Luthfi Nurjanatin Aliyah, 2013; Mayer, 1989, 1999; Omaggio, 1979; Purnell & Solman, 1991; Tang, 1992), many of them were conducted with the native speakers of English at college and primary levels. Few of them explored the effect of Manga as visual aids on EFL junior high school students' reading fluency. The reason why this population is worth studying about is that the reading literacy is crucial not just for the academic purposes in Taiwan, but the indicative factors of the future success in terms of reading competence for adolescents. Also, the researcher finds it urgent to adopt more interesting teaching materials or activities to arouse students’ reading interest in the facilitation of their reading ability. Being an experienced English junior high teacher, the researcher intends to examine the feasibility of incorporating Manga as an instructional tool and make an assumption that Manga might also be a useful tool to enhance language learners’ reading competence, in this study, reading fluency in particular. If the results prove that there are any significant differences, the present study will help us better understand the effect of Manga on EFL reading fluency. Second, studies investigating on the effect of Manga on EFL reading fluency are scarce. The present 6.

(16) study will help us better understand pedagogical strategies by providing some empirical evidence. Moreover, the results of this study may offer valuable suggestions or possible contributions for EFL teachers and textbook designers to make good use of Manga in the teaching settings. More language instructors may adopt and incorporate Manga to trigger students’ learning motivations and improve their reading fluency in the long run.. 1.6 Organization of the Study The study is consisted of five chapters. This first chapter is the introduction of the theoretical framework of the study and background of the effects of Manga on L2 reading fluency, the main purpose and the significance of the study, proposed research questions and definition of key words. Chapter Two is the empirical studies and review of the literature relevant to the effects of Manga on reading comprehension and motivation. The third chapter includes the methodology, which covers the participants, suggested instruments, material selection, data-collection procedures, and how the researcher analyzes the collected data from the participants. Chapter Four is dealing with the discussion of the potential findings and conclusions followed by pedagogical implications and suggestions for future study.. 1.7 Definitions of Terms 1.7.1 Manga Manga is a Japanese style of print cartoon or graphic novel, tackling with narrative text because it tells about a story or fiction. In Japanese, this simply refers to all comic books and comic strips. Manga is ― typified by characters with large eyes, most often published in black and white, and increasingly printed in the Japanese fashion—reading right to left (Jones et al., 2004, p. 131). Manga has roots that are 7.

(17) centuries old, but most people believe that it began when Osamu Tezuka created the AstroBoy comic in the 1950s. In the USA and many other places, it usually refers to Japanese comic books only, but sometimes also to Japanese-influenced comics from Korea, Taiwan, the USA, and other countries. Besides, Manga comes in many genres and is aimed at a variety of audiences. The industry is considerably unlike American comics; for one thing, most series are written and drawn by a single creator. (Mandarin Chinese: manhua, Korean: manhwa) 1.7.2 Reading Fluency There are numerous different definitions about reading fluency in the academic field. For example, Angela and Philip (2009) defined fluency as―the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with little attention to the mechanics of reading, such as decoding. The most widely accepted theory for reading fluency is the automatic information processing (hereafter “automaticity theory”), proposed by LaBerge and Samuels (1974; see also Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Mathson, Allington, & Solic, 2006; Rasinski & Hoffman, 2003). 1.7.3 Assessing Reading Fluency It is necessary that teachers listen to students read aloud in the cause of making judgments about their progress in reading fluency (Zutell & Rasinski, 1991). Also, systematic observation helps assess student progress and determine instructional needs. Teachers observing students’ oral reading fluency should consider each critical aspect of fluent reading: word-reading accuracy, rate, and prosody. Also, contextual reading rather than reading words in a list (Jenkins, Fuchs, van den Broek, Espin, & Deno, 2003) and oral reading rather than silent reading (Fuchs, Fuchs, Eaton, & Hamlet, 2000 cited in Fuchs et al., 2001) were both found to be the best measures of reading rate. Samuels (2006) argued that the essence of reading fluency is the ability 8.

(18) to decode and comprehend a text simultaneously. In dealing with components of reading fluency, Martinez, Roser, and Strecker (1999) suggested that fluency depends on “appropriate rate, accuracy, phrasing, and expression” (p. 327). Reutzel (2006) claimed that major elements of fluency are speed of reading, accuracy, and proper expressions (p. 63). Rasinski (2004) argued that there are three dimensions in reading fluency: accuracy in word decoding, automatic processing, and prosodic reading (p. 46). He claimed that learners’ automatic processing in decoding can be assessed by looking at their reading speed. Although some researchers mentioned the components of oral reading fluency or prosodic reading, such as appropriate or correct phrasing and expression, most researchers and practitioners seem to agree on the following two components of silent reading fluency: (a) accuracy of word recognition, and (b) speed of reading. Judging from the above-mentioned empirical studies, the participants were given contextual and oral reading from one passage of reading from primary level of GEPT to assess their reading rate. 1.7.4 Timed Reading Timed Reading, according to the assertion of Samuels (1979), can be used to measure and increase word-reading accuracy and passage-reading rate. Timed readings are conducted using books or passages the student has read before that are at an independent reading level (i.e., books the student can read with 95% accuracy or above). Measurement of reading speed is most typically accomplished through timed readings. Timings of a student’s reading of connected text allows a teacher to observe the number of words read correctly and the number of errors made in a given time period. Data from timed readings are usually recorded on a timing chart.. 9.

(19) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW The main purpose of this chapter is to provide a review on the relevant literature. The following literature will be examined: theoretical framework, related studies on visual aids, the effects of visual aids on reading, the related studies on Manga, and assessment of reading fluency. Reading fluency instruction will also be reviewed about the present knowledge of how EFL or ESL learners develop reading competence and how language instructors can facilitate learners’ reading development, namely, reading fluency in this study. 2.1 Related Learning Theories about Manga Instruction Some theoretical perspectives will inform the present study: the Dual Coding Theory, the Multimodality Theory, Repetition Hypothesis, Mental Model Theory, and Visual Input Enhancement. 2.1.1 Dual Coding Theory Numerous literacy researchers have proved that reading comics can facilitate students’ reading comprehension instead of being the hindrance to reading. In light of comics’ unique characteristic, the combination between words and pictures, the dual coding theory (DCT) may perhaps provide a theoretical background. Dual Coding Theory (DCT), proposed by Paivio (1971,1986), depicts that cognition involves the activity of two distinct subsystems, a verbal system specialized for dealing directly with language and a nonverbal (imagery) system specialized for dealing with nonlinguistic objects and events (Paivio, 2006). Both systems are generally involved even in language phenomena. DCT has been used not only as a theoretical framework for studying L1 reading comprehension. Liu (2004) stated in 10.

(20) the research that DCT is also a useful theoretical framework for studying the effects of visuals on L2 reading comprehension. The linguistic coding system can be called the verbal system, and the nonverbal coding system can be called the imagery system. These two systems enable the analysis of external scenes and the generation of internal mental images (p. 227). Another study also supports that the visual aspect should help support reading comprehension for all students, even those who are totally unfamiliar with Manga (Aliyah, 2013). In addition, as some researchers have identified visual input and verbal (textual) input as two separate learning styles (rather than a single sight-based preference), the integrated text and illustrations of Manga should help both visual and verbal learners (Mayer & Masser, 2003). According to the concept of DCT, language can evoke imagery, and imagery can evoke language. Therefore, picture cues can be prompts for the verbal language in the reading process and enhance readers’ understanding (Kuo, 2010). Still, Paivio mentioned in the study that combining pictures, mental imagery, and verbal elaboration is even more effective in promoting understanding and learning from text by students ranging from grade school to university level. The researcher assumes that with the better understanding of the text and the facilitation of the picture cues, the students might read more fluently and efficiently. 2.1.2 Multimodalities On a psycholinguistic level, research into learning has shown that multi-modal instruction and the use of contextual visual cues such as those found in comic book stories can be beneficial in regard to comprehension and schema formation (e.g., Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 1999; Leahy, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003; Meskill, 1996; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 1997). Furthermore, Kress (2000) identified the concept of multimodality 11.

(21) which values different modes of communication in texts, such as language as writing and image, working complementarily together in language learning. When writing is found ― on the logic of succession in time, image is found ― on the logic of display in space (p.339). In addition, Royce (2002) indicated that when visual and verbal systems co-present in texts, they can work together to complete and reinforce the meaning of linguistic features on the page. Namely, the notion of multimodality approves the functions of different modes presented in the language texts, including picture cues in L2 and FL reading, which can strengthen readers’ impressions to the texts and facilitate comprehension. Manga could be used in the classroom to develop students’ analytical and critical reading of visual texts. Also, Alvermann and Heron (2001) approved that critical reading of unique media like Manga calls for both the expression and examination of multiple points of view (p. 121). In the case of students using Manga for classroom study, they can use the mechanics and multimodalities of the comic strips to learn how to question their own pleasures (Alvermann & Heron, p. 121). Also, proficient Manga readers are adept at negotiating multimodality, ― using image plus language in increasingly complex ways (Bearne, 2003, p. 98) as they partake in the dynamic interplay among cultures, identities, texts, and literacies. By engaging with a wide range of Manga characters, dynamic plots, and storyboards, children and young adults make connections between these popular texts and their own life experiences (Allender, 2004; Frey & Fisher). For the aforementioned reasons, the present study attempts to examine if these hypothetic functions of Manga could facilitate learners’ reading fluency. 2.1.3 Repetition Hypothesis As explained by (Liu, 2004), the Repetition Hypothesis suggests another positive 12.

(22) explanation for picture cues in reading because when picture cues related to the text appear, they offer readers another chance to glance through certain key points in the reading content, consequently increasing the possibility of overall comprehension. Manga contain plenty of picture cues and may, therefore, enhance readers’ reading fluency. 2.1.4 Mental Model Theory Mental Model Theory argues that picture cues in reading can reduce the cognitive load associated with complex comprehension tasks because they can present essential information more concisely than parallel textual statements (Marcus, N., Cooper, M., & Sweller, J. 1996). Liu (2004) offered support in his study and stated that “illustrations are easier to process than text because they show spatial relations, whereas text requires the reader to construct a mental representation of the relations” (p. 237). Accordingly, visuals facilitate mental model building. In this case, Manga with many picture cues can act as facilitative roles in the reading process to transform the text into mental images which eventually change into a mental model of the readers. 2.1.5 Visual Input Enhancement Ellis (2003) noted that L2 acquisition depends on comprehensive input which learners understand and then take a portion of it into short-term memory as intake. Visual input enhancement, according to Izumi (2002), is an “external attentiondrawing technique” which implicitly draws the learners’ attention to the form, as a picture cue, contained in the written input (p. 543). Picture cues in Manga can be viewed as visual input, which may arouse readers’ attention, encourage readers to observe, and then may result in the enhancement of comprehension and reading fluency in the long run. 13.

(23) 2.2 Studies on Visual Aid Numerous theories have highlighted the significant role of imagery on cognition and comprehension. For example, the theory of Transmediation (Siegel, 1995), the Repetition Hypothesis (Gyselinck & Tardieu, 1999), the Dual Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986; Sadoski & Paivio, 2001), the Mental Model Theory (Cooper, Marcus. & Sweller, 1996), and the Visual Input Enhancement (Ellis, 2003). When it comes to the positive role of visual cues, Williams (2001) pinpointed that visual texts can be more effective than verbal text in expressing perceptual information such as colors, shapes, textures, positions in space, sizes, and patterns. Further, incorporating Comics and Illustrated Trade Books (CTBs) helps students build confidence and independence in accessing complex ideas as they begin by ― reading the pictures (Vardell, Hadaway, and Young 2006, p. 734). More evidence can be found with the experiment administered by Yuliya et al., (2015) where the positive impacts of these strategies on students’ science attitudes and science-vocabulary knowledge are promising. Visual representation, compared to the verbal one, is regarded as more concrete (Goldstone, 1989) and more motivating (Glenberg & Langston, 1992; Peeck, 1987). When visuals are relevant to the verbal text, mental referential connections between these two modes will facilitate comprehension and memory because important information is processed twice (Glenberg & Langston, 1992; Gyselinck & Tardieu, 1999; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Moore & Scevak, 1997). The researcher will further discuss the effects of visual aids on reading as follows. 2.3 The Effects of Visual Aids on Reading Researchers (e.g., Levie & Lentz, 1982; Levin, Anglin, & Carney, 1987) have outlined five major functions of visuals in reading. First, representation: Visuals repeat the text’s content or substantially overlap with the text, which may be 14.

(24) beneficial in the facilitation of reading comprehension and the enhancement of reading speed. Second, organization: Visuals enhance the text’s coherence. With the facilitation of picture cues, the readers might guess the vocabulary they do not comprehend and thus lead to faster reading speed. Third, interpretation: Visuals provide the reader with more concrete information. Similarly, the readers might better understand the context and the plots easily with the speech bubbles or picture cues in Manga, hence contributing to the enhancement of reading fluency. Fourth, transformation: Visuals target critical information in the text and recode it in a more memorable form. As DCT depicts, the verbal and nonverbal system interact mutually, thus might facilitate reading comprehension of the text. The visual aids might be a positive factor of memorizing text. Fifth, decoration: Visuals are used for their aesthetic properties or to arouse reader’s interest in the text in that they make the text more enjoyable and attractive. More positive effects of visual aids can be found as follows. The effects of visuals on adult ESL learners at beginning, intermediate, and advanced proficiency levels were investigated by Hudson (1982). The researcher concluded that visual imagery via picture cues can overcome deficits of lower proficiency readers and that more advanced readers bring more nonvisual information to the reading comprehension process. Although Hudson did not directly associate this result with DCT, the salient finding that using visuals helped low-proficiency level students merits further investigation from that perspective. One more relevant experiment was administered by Gambrell and Jawitz (1993) with the finding that students who had attended to both text and illustrations and who had formed their own mental images performed better on several measures of comprehension than students who had studied both text and illustrations, and who in turn performed better than students who 15.

(25) had studied text alone in the study investigating the relative effectiveness of induced mental imagery, attention to story illustrations, and both altogether. More educational evidence can be found in Mayer’s (1999) research, where the researcher investigated educational multimedia explanations including science text and illustrations, finding that words and pictures together produced better recall and transfer than either did alone, and that individual differences in ability were a factor. The multimedia group outperformed the single representation group in every experimental test in his research program. Still, Levin also concluded that pictures-in-text review with a list of 10 practical suggestions for educators, or what might be called ―10 tenets for teachers. The first four tenets are derived from our earlier ― ten commandments of pictorial facilitation of text information (Levin et al., 1987). They further discussed that ― select pictures that overlap with text content. Learning benefits occur when pictures and text provide congruent, or supporting, information. Decorational illustrations may help to make the text more attractive or more marketable, but they are unlikely to enhance desired outcomes related to understanding, remembering, or applying the text content.. 2.3.1 Different Types of Visual Aids in Reading Numerous types of visual aids have been utilized to facilitate comprehension. Braden (1994) includes five distinct areas: (1) semiotics and film (video) conventions; (2) signs, symbols, and icons; (3) images and illustration; (4) multi-image (images that shown concurrently or sequentially); and (5) graphic representation. Each of those areas has its own growing research literature.. 2.3.1.1 Semiotics and film (video) conventions Video has been confirmed positive in the facilitation of reading comprehension. 16.

(26) Corcoran (1981) pointed out in the study that there are problems in the use of linguistic mode's or reader theories as they apply to reading the images of screen media. Furthermore, Salomon (1983, 1984) has focused upon demonstrating that it is much easier in terms of mental effort for an individual to view television than it is to read text. He characterized television as easy and print as tough. The implications for education are obvious.. 2.3.1.2 Signs, symbols, and icons Scholarship concerning signs, symbols and icons has been reported in the work of Salomon (1979), Griffin & Gibbs (1993), and Yeaman (1987).. 2.3.1.3 Images and illustration Researchers have found that pictures duplicating information in the text improve reading comprehension and memory. For examples, Purnell and Solman (1991) conducted five experiments: Some students received text alone, some received a visual illustrating the same content alone, and others received both the text and the visuals to examine how high school students used illustration to comprehend technical materials. In accordance with DCT, they found that the text and illustration presented together produced better results than either did alone, even when students were repeatedly exposed to either the text or the illustration. These results are consistent with other research conducted by Kulhavy, Lee, and Caterino (1985), who found that fifth graders better understood and retained information in maps and prose directions when it was presented in both spatial and elaborated verbal forms rather than either form alone. Their conjoint retention hypothesis is acknowledged as a rendition of DCT. Pictures shall not be prepared in vain. A reader’s possession of basic reading skills is required for picture benefits to emerge. Pictures are intended as text 17.

(27) supplements rather than as text substitutes. Russel and Joel (2002) supported that pictures improve students’ learning from text because they make the text more concentrated (focused, with respect to directing a reader’s attention), compact/concise (―a picture is worth a thousand words), concrete (the representation function), coherent (the organization function), comprehensible (the interpretation function), correspondent (relating unfamiliar text to a reader’s prior knowledge), and codable (the mnemonic transformation function).. 2.3.1.4 Multi-image A growing number of studies asserts the positive role multi-image (images that shown concurrently or sequentially) plays, as shown in such works as those of Whiteside (1987), Didcoct, Eh linger, Tierney, and Toler.. 2.3.1.5 Graphic representation Spread across several disciplines are many papers on graphic representation such as those of Jonassen, Beissner & Yacci (1993), Bertoline, Burton & Wiley (1992), Braden (1983), Whiteside & Whiteside (1988), Giffin (1989), Macdonald-Ross (1977a, 19771,, 1979), Moxley (1983), Pruisner (1992), Winn (1980, 1981, 1882, 1983, 1986, 1987), and Winn & Holiday (1982).. 2.3.1.2 Manga Adam et Al., (2006) elaborated that there are two main reasons that warrant drawing educators’ attention toward Manga: (1) the comics’ sheer popularity— evident by the sale of Manga across the United States — and (2) the unique multimodal reading that Manga seems to demand. To promote adolescent reading skills, instructors may provide them with the access to English reading materials with an explicit purpose and curriculum. Nevertheless, the selection of material should be 18.

(28) considered before that. The materials should be authentic, natural and interesting enough to intrigue learners’ intrinsic motivation toward English reading. So Manga may be the best choice in terms of material selection. Moreover, numerous studies have proven the positive effect of this media on reading proficiency. For instance, according to Kane (2007), the [Manga] titles are flying off the shelves. Students who were not interested in EFL have suddenly become avid readers ...students get hooked and read [a] whole series within days. However, Hadley (2001) raised a number of issues regarding the role of visual elements in L2 reading comprehension. She asked whether pictures, drawings, or other visual elements can actually enhance students’ comprehension of L2 texts and called for research to demonstrate the differential effects of certain types and numbers of visuals on students at various proficiency levels (2001, p. 149). Among visual genres, comic strips catch many researchers’ attention because they are communicative, popular, accessible, and readable, and they combine aesthetic perception with intellectual pursuit (Harvey, 1994; Inge, 1990; O’Sullivan, 1971; Swain, 1978; Waller, 1991). Just like what was depicted in the aforementioned DCT theory, comic books communicate using two major media — words and images — a somewhat arbitrary separation because comic strips’ expressive potential lies in skillfully employing words and images together. During the past decade, numerous journal articles have introduced techniques for using comic strips in education and particularly in language classrooms. Harrison (1998), for instance, discussed how comic strips can be employed in journalism history classes to illuminate the subject and impart a number of relevant lessons. Still, Wright and Sherman (1994) also discussed the attributes of daily comic strips that make them an ideal medium for reading and English courses and teachers can accomplish this task with them. Moreover, Sandra (2007) also found in her research that comic books and 19.

(29) the Internet were also favorites for leisure reading, with 44% of the students indicating that they liked to read comic books. Chou et al (2015) also depicted in the research that English comic-book reading can improve EFL junior high school students’ vocabulary acquisition and enhance their reading comprehension. 2.4 Manga Reading 2.4.1 Empirical Studies of Manga in Language Instruction Comic books have been used and approved to teach second or foreign languages. Williams (1995) investigated how comic books can be used as instructional materials for ESL students with low intermediate ― level English language skills, and with limited discourse and interactive competence. Williams found that using comic strips in second language classrooms can guide students to hypothesize about the cartoons’ language, raise awareness of pragmatics, and emphasize language’s underlying regularity. Moreover, to investigate the role of comic strips on ESL learners’ reading comprehension, Liu (2004) found in the research that 53 low intermediate proficiency group students receiving the high-level text with the comic strips scored significantly higher than their 54 counterparts receiving the high-level text only, with the analyses demonstrating that using comic strips significantly enhanced the performance of lowlevel students but had little impact on the performance of high-level participants. Proficient Manga readers are adept at negotiating multimodality, ― using image plus language in increasingly complex ways (Bearne, 2003, p. 98) as they partake in the dynamic interplay among cultures, identities, texts, and literacies. Also, Carrington (2004) indicated that Manga readers are likely to attend to graphical information at the same hierarchical level as the printed text. This is a drastic change from traditional reading that involves attending first and foremost to the written text, using pictures 20.

(30) and illustrations only as supplements to it. Such being the case, the researcher decides to fill the gap by integrating Manga rather than other reading materials with illustrations. Moreover, Manga is an effective media to teach reading narrative texts to improve students’ reading ability. The result showed that there is a significant difference between the students who are taught using Manga(experimental group) and those who are not taught using Manga(control group). Manga gives students reasons to re-read the texts. So that it is a good opportunity for the students to understand the texts more. (Aliyah, 2013) On the selection of the teaching materials from visual aids, the researcher indicates that while traditional textbooks are admittedly useful, particularly in EFL classrooms, they often contain vocabulary or expressions that are too formal or old- fashioned and rarely used in daily life. On the contrary, Manga stories tend to reflect daily life (even if the story takes place in a fantastic setting) and contain authentic dialogues, even slangs. In this sense, Manga can serve as a useful source of authentic English, especially in EFL contexts where there is limited access to non-textbook English. Manga as a teaching tool that they may find more interesting and comprehensible compared to starting with the classics (2004, p. 3). 2.4.2 Manga: Possible Solution The reasons why the researcher chose Manga as the target instructional material are as follows: First, Manga combines illustrations with oral (e.g., speech bubbles) and written (e.g., commentary) text. Mayer & Masser (2003) investigated that the integrated text and illustrations of Manga may help both visual and verbal learners. Successful Manga readers become adept at deciphering meaning in different modes. These strategies entail an understanding of linguistic and paralinguistic features of a text. (Widdowson, 1978) Second, comic book readers tend to have more positive 21.

(31) attitudes toward reading. Krashen (2004) also argued Dynamic interplay among literacies. Proficient Manga readers are adept at negotiating multimodality, ―using image plus language in increasingly complex ways (Bearne, 2003,) when they take part in the dynamic interplay among cultures, identities, texts, and literacies. Third, research into second language reading has also demonstrated that familiarity with the content and format of the literature can increase student engagement with the text, in particular with Japanese participants and the Manga format (Beals, 2009). The authentic language used in translated Manga has been shown to increase engagement with the text, which in turn motivates participants to further their reading of similar materials (Cary, 2004). Fourth, first language research has shown that the comic book format can be a useful medium to increase reading motivation (e.g., Haugaard, 1973; Krashen, 2005; Norton, 2003; Ujiie & Krashen, 1996; Kane, 2007). Fifth, on a psycholinguistic level, research into learning has shown that multimodal instruction and the use of contextual visual cues such as those found in comic book stories can be beneficial in regard to comprehension and schema formation (e.g., Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 1999; Leahy, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003; Meskill, 1996; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 1997). Sixth, graphic novels and Manga are good for youth who read English as a second language or on a lower reading level because the simple sentences and visual cues allow the reader to comprehend the story (Jones et al., 2004). Seventh, Ikue Kunai, Clarissa C. S. Ryan (2007) emphasized that ― Compared to conventional books, which may overwhelm students with the sheer number of words, the text in Manga is separated into panels, which allows readers to pause before they go to the next one. Because of this reduced level of information, readers may not be discouraged to keep reading as they would be by large blocks of text. While students may be reluctant to 22.

(32) reread thick textbooks, since reading Manga brings little fear, pressure, or anxiety, but instead brings entertainment, students are more likely to enjoy reading again and again. This repetition may help students learn vocabulary in context. They also affirmed that ―Reading Manga is likely to give students less stress than reading textbooks, novels, or articles, particularly since many students have previously read Manga for fun and thus associate Manga with something exciting rather than something tedious. This image helps readers not be so anxious about their learning; rather, it increases students’ interest and motivation. Last but not least, Manga translations are authentic English literature despite their origins. The translations are aimed at American audiences, and are often written by a team including a bilingual Japanese-English translator and a native English-speaking translator-editor, who ensures that the text is natural and meaningful (Carlson, 2006). The use of comic book style readers and the participants’ response to them lends support to previous research that contextual illustrations and context help enable participants’ schema formation and general comprehension of text. Judging from the above-mentioned empirical studies, the researcher thinks that Manga may be a suitable media for EFL junior high learners to enhance their reading fluency. Moreover, given the popularity of Manga among young adults, it is surprising that these comics have not been explored in greater depth in the literacy research literature. The researcher hence tried to incorporate it in the hope of facilitating ninth graders in a public junior high school in Taoyuan, Taiwan.. 2.5 Reading Fluency 2.5.1 Definition of Reading Fluency There are numerous different definitions about reading fluency. Angela and 23.

(33) Philip (2009) defined that [1]. Fluency is a major component of reading competency and the reading process [2]. Fluency is defined as ― the ability to read connected text rapidly, smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with little attention to the mechanics of reading, such as decoding [3]. If children do not acquire the fundamentals of reading, which is based largely on reading fluency, at a young age it places them at a considerable disadvantage in their future academic pursuits. For this reason, the ability to read fluently at an early age has become increasingly emphasized [4]. Unfortunately, fluency remains a skill that many students struggle to master. Fluent reading comprises three key elements: accurate reading of connected text at a conversational rate with appropriate prosody or expression (Hudson, Mercer, & Lane, 2000). In addition, according to the National Reading Panel (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000): Reading fluency is one of several critical factors necessary for reading comprehension, but is often neglected in the classroom. Teachers need to listen to students read aloud to make judgments about their progress in reading fluency (Zutell & Rasinski, 1991). If children read out loud with speed, accuracy, and proper expression, they are more likely to comprehend and remember the material than if they read with difficulty and in an inefficient way. To achieve this goal, language arts teacher may be concerned with fostering students’ oral reading fluency. LaBerge and Samuels (1974) developed a theory of automatic information processing describing the impact of skilled decoding on reading fluency. Fluency incorporates automaticity and prosody (e.g., Erekson, 2003; Logan, 1997; Samuels, 2004). Timothy and Chase (2004) also proposed that ― reading fluency is indeed important; not just for the sake of fluency itself, but for improving students’ reading comprehension and their confidence as readers.. 2.5.1.1 Automaticity 24.

(34) A large number of previous studies have demonstrated that automaticity theory provides a perspective to interpret the relationships between oral reading fluency and reading comprehension (Logan, 1997) Automatic word recognition is central to the construct of fluency and fluency’s role in the comprehension of text (e.g., Samuels, 2004, 2006). Further, the researcher also posited that a fluent reader decodes text automatically — that is, without attention—thus leaving attention free to be used for comprehension” (p. 379). On top of that, Logan (1997; see also Moors and DeHouwer, 2006) posited that processes are considered to be automatic when they possess four properties: speed, effortlessness, autonomy, and lack of conscious awareness. As automaticity develops, whether in terms of reading, perceptual-motor activities, or another skilled task, the learner’s performance not only becomes accurate, it gets faster. 2.5.1.2 Prosody Although automaticity is central to children’s development as fluent readers, it does not account for all aspects of the construct. A second critical component of reading fluency is the ability to read with prosody; namely, with appropriate expression or intonation coupled with phrasing that allows for the maintenance of meaning (Cowie, Douglas-Cowie, & Wichmann, 2002; Miller & Schwanenflugel, 2006, 2008; Schwanenflugel, Hamilton, Kuhn, Wisenbaker, & Stahl, 2004). Prosody is a linguistic term to describe the rhythmic and tonal aspects of speech: the ―music of oral language. Prosodic features are variations in pitch (intonation), stress patterns (syllable prominence), and duration (length of time) that contribute to expressive reading of a text (Allington, 1983; Dowhower, 1991; Schreiber, 1980, 1991). Moreover, a fundamental task of fluent reading is to supply the prosodic features in a text, although they are not graphically represented (Schreiber, 1980). Schreiber suggested that fluent readers use the other cues (i.e., morphemic, syntactic, semantic, 25.

(35) and pragmatic) present in text to organize the text into meaningful phrases and read with correct prosody (i.e., reading that sounds like speaking). Struggling readers are often characterized as reading in a monotone without expression or with inappropriate phrasing. Because prosody and reading comprehension seem to have a reciprocal relationship, prosody is an important area of focus for fluency instruction. Using prosody correctly is another indication of oral reading fluency that the reader comprehends what he or she has read. (Khor et al., 2014). 2.6 Reading Fluency Instruction Most literacy educators consider fluency to be a critical component of reading development (e.g., Rasinski, Blachowicz, & Lems, 2006; Samuels & Farstrup, 2006). Fluency, seen primarily in terms of rate measures, has become a driving force in reading instruction. Although fluent reading is critical to later reading success (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Rasinski et al., in press), it is only one component of literacy learning. Effective instructional approaches for fluency development such as fluency-oriented reading instruction (FORI; Stahl, Heubach, & Holcomb, 2005), wide fluency-oriented reading instruction (Wide FORI or Wide Reading; Kuhn et al., 2006) and the fluency development lesson (FDL; Rasinski, Padak, Linek, & Sturtevant, 1994) view the comprehension of texts, rather than an increase in reading rate, as the primary goal. These approaches all recognize that the development of automaticity, prosody, and reading comprehension occur through the scaffolding reading of a range of texts. It is the various forms of supported reading (for example, echo, choral, partner, and repeated reading) that allow learners to engage with and learn from the material they are reading.. 2.6.1 Guided Oral Reading Among the studies on how to improve students’ reading fluency, Cunningham 26.

(36) (2000) suggests that guided oral reading, especially repeated reading, leads to improved oral reading fluency. More examples could be found in Wang’s (2013) research. A 12-week study was conducted aimed to examine the effects of applying guided repeated oral reading instruction on English vocabulary ability, oral reading fluency for the 5th graders with low English achievement in Taiwan and to understand their feedback toward the experimental instruction. Nine low English achievers served as participants in this study, whose English performance in the previous semester was ranged from the bottom 25% among the same graders. Data were collected through the pre- and post-tests of vocabulary ability and oral reading fluency as well as a questionnaire of their feedback toward the guided repeated reading and of their self-confidence in English learning. The results of the study indicated that guided oral reading improved participants’ English vocabulary ability and oral reading fluency significantly. Furthermore, it also enhanced their selfconfidence on English reading. However, participants’ spelling ability was not improved significantly. 2.6.2 Repeated Reading (echo, choral, partner) Repetition of text allows for the kind of consistent practice that is important to readers. And, drawing from both the Samuels and the Logan theories of automaticity, repetition allows for the deepening of traces (Logan, 1997) and the freeing up of attention (Samuels, 2006). Moreover, Logan pointed out that, in addition to developing automatic word recognition, repeated readings allow learners to establish prosody, identify appropriate phrasing, and determine meaning. Thus difficulties encountered in a text can be successfully solved as the text is read repeatedly and, as a result, similar difficulties are likely to be more readily solved when encountered in another text. Morgan and Lyon (cited in Dowhower, 1989) reported that after 3 27.

(37) months of practicing the RR technique, junior high poor readers in their study made nearly 12 month’s progress in less than 7 months’ time on a standardized comprehension test. One research-based strategy that has proven effective in increasing students’ oral reading fluency is the repeated readings (RR) method. Rereading a text, as in an RR exercise, is an effective strategy in several areas. First, rereading the same passage has been using Readers Theatre to foster fluency 165 shown to significantly increase reading rate and accuracy (Carver & Hofman, 1981 ; Chomsky, 1976 ; Dahl, 1974 ; Dowhower, 1987 ; Rashotte & Torgesen, 1985 ; Samuels, 1979/1997) and the ability to segment text into meaningful chunks (Dowhower, 1987). Second, many scholars report that rereading a passage significantly increases comprehension (Chard, Simmons & Kameenui, 1998; Sindelar, Monda & O’Shea, 1990; Weinstein & Cooke, 1992). Third, the benefits appear to carry over to unpracticed texts. Dowhower’s review of relevant research indicated that having the student practice one passage to a predetermined set rate of speed leads to increases in both fluency and comprehension in fresh passages (Dowhower, 1987; Dowhower, 1989). Further, the results of the Garfield Reading Attitudes Survey showed that most students felt they were able to read ― well and ― fast. For example, a student named ―Evan said, ―I can read fine. I can read really fast. 120 words per minutes is nothing. I can read a whole comic book in less than twenty minutes. (Observation notes, October 6, 2006) 2.6.3 Read Aloud Brabham and Lynch-Brown (2002), Jacobs, Morrison, and Swinyard (2000) found that 100% of elementary teachers read aloud several times a week. As evidenced by the research, throughout the decades teachers have been reading more and more often to their students. Barrentine (1996) reported that Harste, Woodward, 28.

(38) and Burke (1984) identified that read aloud also instructed how stories work, modeled page turning, demonstrated the reading process, expressed how to monitor ones comprehension, taught inflection, showed how language works, and presented written language. Still, teachers read aloud for many reasons including the following: to express thematic content (Moss, 1995), to teach literature-based math lessons (Whitin & Wilde, 1992), and to demonstrate the reading process (Harste, Woodward, & Burke, 1984; Holdaway, 1979). Through a Read-Aloud, a teacher can model reading strategies and demonstrate the ways in which the language of the books is different from spoken language (Hedrick & Pearish, 2003) 2.6.4 Scaffolding Silent Reading To help students transfer their successful oral reading skills to successful and effective silent reading practice, teachers may provide them with the necessary support, guidance, structure, accountability, and monitoring (Reutzel et al., 2008, ). In Scaffolding Silent Reading (ScSR), teachers monitor students during practice through individual reading conferences in which students read aloud, discuss the book, answer questions, and set goals for completing the reading of the book within a specific time. Among the empirical studies about reading fluency instruction, few studies mentioned the instruction about using Manga. For example, Kunai (2007) stated that built-in scaffolding is another potential benefit of using Manga. By reading the same story in English, students may be less anxious and be more comfortable guessing the meanings of unfamiliar words from context. The visual aspect should also help support reading comprehension for all students, even those who are totally unfamiliar with Manga. In ScSR, teachers monitor students during practice through individual reading conferences in which students read aloud, discuss the book, answer questions, and set goals for completing the reading of the book within a specific time compared 29.

(39) to SSR(Sustained Silent Reading), where teachers did not provide students with feedback nor did they actively monitor their reading practice. Reutzel et al., (2008) investigated in their experiment that two reading fluency practice treatments not only facilitated students in the at-risk schools to make better-than-national-average gains in WCPM reading rates but also helped to close the gap between these students’ beginning and end-of-year reading fluency performance, as compared with 50thpercentile national fluency norms. The students’ accountability lies that the learners read aloud to the teacher, answer teacher questions, set personal goals for completing the reading of a book within a timeframe, and complete one or more book response projects. More studies approved the instruction of ScSR, ― students who are averse to reading are unlikely to benefit from DEAR or SSSR (Hasbrouck, 2006) unless they are provided with a range of options such as scaffolding silent reading (Reutzel, Fawson, & Smith, 2008).. 2.7 Assessment of Reading Fluency For the past decades, research on fluency has heavily been done in the context of native language, particularly in the English as the first language context. Comparatively, oral reading fluency in English as Second Language (ESL) context has been scare (refer to Grabe, 2010, for a review on reading fluency in first language, L1 and second language, L2 contexts). In one of the studies that focused on L2 reading fluency, Lems (2005) identified two different conditions when L2 learners read a text aloud. The first condition is that L2 readers may decode without comprehension. In the first language context, when a reader can pronounce the word aloud, he or she will automatically draw upon his or her oral word bank to find a semantic match for the word meaning. In contrast, L2 readers may be able to decode the text but there is no guarantee that they will effectively extract the meaning. Lems 30.

(40) (2005) further provided a clear illustration of how the relationships of reading fluency and reading comprehension could differ in L1 and L2 contexts. 2.7.1 Curriculum-Based Measurement Using fluency norms to set appropriate goals for student improvement and to measure progress toward those goals is a powerful and efficient way for educators to make well informed and timely decisions about the instructional needs of their students, particularly the lowest performing, struggling readers. (Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, 2006) Educators looking for a way to assess students’ reading fluency have sometimes turned to curriculum-based measurement (CBM), which is a set of standardized and well-researched procedures for assessing and monitoring students’ progress in reading, math, spelling, and writing (Fuchs & Deno, 1991; Shinn, 1989, 1998; Tindal & Marston, 1990). It was originally designed to evaluate students’ general reading progress by measuring the number of correct — and incorrect — words read aloud in one minute (e.g., Deno & Marston, 2006; Madelaine & Wheldall, 1999, 2004; Samuels, 2007). Studies have indicated that the use of these measures as a means of tracking learners’ reading development can lead to improvements in reading achievement (Deno, 2003; Fuchs, Deno, & Mirkin, 1984; Stecker & Fuchs, 2000; Wayman, Wallace, Wiley, Tichdt, & Espin, 2007) Moreover, there is evidence that they correlate highly with standardized tests of reading comprehension as well (e.g., Deno & Marston, 2006; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Maxwell, 1988). The rationale of why the teacher researcher is scheduled to adopt CWBs to access learners’ reading fluency is that according to Deno and Marston (2006), the definition of fluency should not be limited to correct words per minute, because this understanding leaves out important features of the construct, such as prosody. Speed increases throughout practice, but the gains are largest early on and diminish with further practice. (Logan, 1997, p. 123). 31.

(41) Samuels (2006) further suggested that ―it remains critical that students are not focusing on rate at the expense of meaning; to prevent overemphasizing rapid decoding, a measure of comprehension should be used in conjunction with any evaluation of reading fluency. During the assessment of reading fluency, apart from calculating learners’ reading rate, it’s of great importance that comprehension tests or practice should be undertaken, such as brief discussion of the content of the selected passages or articles, summary of the passages being read, or retellings of the text. The validity and reliability of this measure has been well established in a body of research extending over the past 25 years (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001; Shinn, 1998). The relationship between ORF and comprehension has been found to be stronger with elementary and junior high students than with older individuals (Fuchs et al., 2001) 2.7.2 Timed Reading The researcher adopted Oral Reading Fluency (ORF), one of the widely used CBM procedures, to assess students’ reading fluency. For the pre-test and post-test, the researcher listens to students reading aloud from an unpracticed passage adapted from a reading comprehension test of primary level of GEPT for one minute. At the end of the minute each error is subtracted from the total number of words read to calculate the score of words correct per minute (WCPM).. 2.8 Relationship between Repeated Reading and Reading Fluency While repeated reading has received considerable attention in English as L1 settings, somewhat less attention has been paid to research on RR in L2 or FL settings. Blum, Koskinen, Tennant, Parker, Straub, and Curry (1995) concluded that RR improved the readers' ability to read fluently and accurately books of increasing difficulty. 32.

(42) A growing number of studies have displayed that repeated reading plays an important role in L2 reading fluency acquisition (Taguchi, E., 2004). From the results of the experimental study, Taguchi et al. (2004) confirmed that assisted repeated reading is equally as effective as extensive reading in increasing EFL readers' silent reading rate, and favorably affects learners' perceptions of reading activities. Furthermore, the results indicate the specific role the repetition and listening components of assisted repeated reading play to facilitate reading comprehension. Assisted repeated reading can potentially develop weak ESL/EFL readers' fluency and help them become independent readers by providing a distinct form of scaffolding. Moreover, Therrien, W. J. (2004) asserted in the study that repeated reading is an evidenced-based strategy designed to increase reading fluency and comprehension. The author conducted a meta-analysis to ascertain essential instructional components of repeated reading and the effect of repeated reading on reading fluency and comprehension. This analysis demonstrates that repeated reading can be used effectively with nondisabled students and students with learning disabilities to increase reading fluency and comprehension on a particular passage and as an intervention to increase overall fluency and comprehension ability.. 2.9 Summary Through the reviews of the mentioned literature on Manga, repeated reading, and reading fluency, it is found that Manga might facilitate beginner readers with their reading performance and perhaps aid them in the reading process in some ways. The study intends to provide pedagogical implications about how a teacher integrates and implements Manga reading program in English for those having interest in adopting Manga to enhance EFL learners’ English reading in Taiwan. 33.

(43) CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY The study was conducted to find out whether there may be any significant differences with the incorporation of Manga in teaching reading fluency. The appropriate research design of this study was experimental research. The researcher teacher gave pre-test followed by post-test after the treatments. Also, the study included quantitative research to investigate the effects of Manga on reading fluency. In this chapter, the researcher presented the main study design, which was designed to answer the researcher questions, in this chapter. There were five main sections: (1) Participants (2) Readability of selected Manga, (3) Instrumentation, (4) DataCollection Procedure (5) Data Analysis 3.1 Participants The participants for the main study came from two mixed-level classes of 39 ninth graders whose mother tongue is Mandarin Chinese in a junior high school in Northern Taiwan. They were expected to receive EFL teaching and instruction formally for at least four years. Students in Taiwan had begun learning English in fifth or sixth grade in primary school since 2001. As for the teacher researcher, a nonnative-English-speaking male teacher, has been teaching English in the same junior high for about thirteen years and has been teaching the participants English for two years since they entered the same junior high school. The researcher, whose mother tongue is also Mandarin Chinese, studied TESOL in Australia for two months in 2006. 3.2 Material Selection. 34.