Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.5 Sustainability
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Phnom Penh post (2108), nearly 2.5 million visitors came to the Angkor Wat temple complex resulting in ticket sales of $108 million. In 2017, the ticket prices for Angkor Wat increased from a one-day pass being $20 to $37, the two-day pass changed from $40 to $62, and the three-day went from $60 to $72. The Cambodian National Tourism Alliance assumed that the increase in ticket price would possibly deter tourists, but in fact the numbers of visitors continues to steadily rise (Spiess, 2018).
Beyond the Angkor Wat temple complex, visitors come to Cambodia to experience the local culture. In Phnom Penh and Siem Reap visitors can watch Apsara dance performances usually in a dinner theater. Also in Siem Reap is the Phare Circus, where Cambodian stories are told through the art of contortion, acrobatics, theater, music, and dance. There are also numerous temples or wats to explore throughout all of the country. For the more adventurous, it is possible to take river cruises to travel between cities while observing the floating villages. Many guests also enjoy taking cooking or craft workshops, to learn the certain ways of life of the local people.
Additionally, another popular activity is receiving a massage or getting a fish pedicure (Tourism Cambodia, n.d.).
2.5 Sustainability
There are many different views on how one defines the term sustainability. The term sustainability arises from the concept of sustainable development which became part of the world’s rhetoric after the world’s first Earth Summit in Rio, Brazil in 1992 (globalfootprints.org, 2017). Sustainability arises from the notion that resources are not limitless, so if there are no regulations or planning, these resources will be depleted and degraded (Hawkes, 2004). In 1992, the Brunland Report for the World Commission on Environment and Development defined
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sustainable development as, “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (globalfootprints.org, 2017). This report further declared that sustainable development “requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to fulfill their aspirations for a better life (WCED). Furthermore, sustainability is “fundamentally about adapting to a new ethic of living on the planet and creating a more equitable and just society through the fair distribution of social goods and resources (Duxbury et al., 2007, pp. 3).”
Sustainable development is known to incorporate three key principles: economic
development, social justice, and ecological responsibility. According to Gleeson and Low (2001, pp. 6), “these principles exhibit a dialectical tension,” because to achieve sustainable
development, the approach on how to incorporate these principles varies, and in some cases only two out of the three can be considered in development planning. In 2001, John Hawkes proposed that culture was also an important facet of sustainable development. In his book, The Fourth Pillar of Sustainability: Culture’s Essential Role in Public Planning, he integrates the four linked dimensions which he defines as environmental responsibility, economic health, social equity, and cultural vitality. Hawkes argued that culture must be incorporated as a fourth pillar of sustainable development, because culture itself has a major role on the environmental, economic, and social decisions that are implemented in communities. Furthermore, Hawkes argued that culture is essential because a community’s exuberance and quality of life are analogous to the quality of its cultural engagement, communication, expression, and celebration (Duxbury et al., 2007).
A well-being model including cultural, environmental, social, and economic dimensions was created by the New Zealand’s Ministry for Cultural Heritage (Duxbury et al., 2007). This model is represented in Figure 4. In this model, wellbeing is when members of a community are
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prevented from feeling excluded, powerless, and unhappy. It is important to have a proper
balance between cultural, environmental, economic, and social sustainability, because strength in one area, for example the economic sector, does not guarantee a good society (Hawkes, 2004).
Wellbeing is placed at the center of this model, because wellbeing exists when the four
dimensions of sustainability are given equal weight, yet interdependent (Duxbury et al. 2007).
Figure 4. Four Well-beings of Community Sustainability (Duxbury et al., 2007)
Nathan Cardinal and Emilie Adin proposed another model as a framework for exploring and documenting the state of aboriginal life in Vancouver, Canada. This model, metaphorically shaped like a medicine wheel has environment in the north sector, social in the south, economic in the west, and cultural in the east. Culture is symbolically put in the east because in aboriginal
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culture, beginnings start in the east as that is where the sun rises. Furthermore, the words “male, female, children/youth, and adult” crosscut the four elements. This model can be seen in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Nathan Cardinal and Emilie Adin’s Sustainability Model
Though this model was meant to provide analysis for studying an aboriginal culture, it is still relevant for measuring sustainability in other cultures and communities as well.
For the purpose of this case study, cultural sustainability will be further explored, because PPSA’s and PSSE’s social mission is to preserve and celebrate Cambodian culture while also providing professional development in the arts. Furthermore, sustainable tourism will also be defined, as it is an essential method of income for both PPSA and PPSE.
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2.5.1 Cultural Sustainability
Defining culture, is not as simple as it seems. It is one of those terms that is contested due to its complexity. However John Hawkes (2001), a leading researcher on cultural sustainability, has attributed to definitions that encompass the meaning of culture. The first is that culture is
“the social production and transmission of identities, meanings, knowledge, beliefs, values, aspirations, memories, purposes, attitudes, and understanding (p.3).” The second definition states that culture is “the ‘way of life’ of a particular set of humans: customs, faiths and conventions;
codes of manners, dress, cuisine, language, arts, science, technology, religion and rituals, norms and regulations of behavior, traditions and institutions (p. 3).”
The effect that globalization is having on local cultures, has generated much debate and discussion. In turn, this has caused culture to come to the forefront in the process of sustainable development (Hawkes, 2004). Culture has recently been added as, what some call, a ‘fourth pillar’ in the sustainable development approach. Culture is thus a separate entity from the ecological, economic, and social sustainability approaches (Laine, 2016). The key to cultural sustainability is creating and fostering exchange, partnerships, and respect between the various sectors of government, business, and arts organizations (Duxbury et al., 2007). John Hawkes (2004) argues that when culture is incorporated into the theoretical and operational frameworks of public affairs there are tremendous benefits. The advantages of adding culture to the
sustainable framework are as follows:
1. It provides identification of the aspirations and values of communities. These values are at the foundation of society;
2. It is a definitive term that encompasses the process we use to discuss our future, evaluate our pasts, and act in the present. .
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3. It brings together a range of concepts such as wellbeing, cohesion, capacity,
engagement, belonging, distinctiveness to be considered in sustainable planning. Thus the concept of culture, provides a constructive tool to deal with these concepts.
4. It provides a better theoretical framework that has the capacity to combine and incorporate the full range of social relations and organizations within a framework that is comprehensive, accessible, flexible, and standardized.
5. It makes clarifying strategic objectives and implementing operations more simplistic because it is easier to find ways to integrate public opinion towards the planning process.
6. It improves the integration of public program management
From cultural sustainability emerges a certain framework referred to as community cultural development. Citizens in a community are able to develop their culture through
storytelling, skill-building, and actively promoting cultural values. By using arts and culture as a fundamental tool, community cultural development aids in sustainability. It is important that artists build a relationship with the community in order to collaborate, which in turn promotes social development and change. Community cultural development is mostly seen as a grassroots strategy, but it is an important facet of sustainability planning because it supports a community’s culture, empowers residents, and strengthens cultural infrastructure and participation.
Furthermore, community cultural development has played a major role in facilitating other development initiatives such as affordable housing, healthcare, youth development, education, poverty alleviation, policy, and planning (Duxbury et al., 2007).
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2.5.2 Social Sustainability
Social sustainability deals with identifying and managing the positive and negative impacts that businesses have on a community. Companies have both direct and indirect affects on what happens to employees, workers, customers, and local communities. Social development thus aims to alleviate problems such as poverty and human rights violations. In order to practice social sustainability businesses can create decent jobs and provide goods and services that meet basic needs. They can also be strategic about making specific social investments which promote public policies that in turn support social sustainability. Furthermore, businesses can partner with other organizations to make a greater positive impact (Wynhoven, 2017)
Duxbury et al. (2007) comprised a list of the necessary attributes a socially sustainable community should encompass. This list is found in Figure 6.
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Figure 6. Necessary Attributes for a Socially Sustainable Community
2.5.3 Sustainable Tourism
Sustainable Tourism is a complex concept to define because it is understood to be more of an ideology or point of view rather than possessing an exact operational definition (Saarinen, 2006). However there are some broad definitions devised by researchers to portray sustainable tourism. First, Colin Hunter (1997) defines sustainable tourism as follows:
The term “sustainable tourism” has come to represent and encompass a set of principles, policy prescriptions, and management methods which chart a path for tourism
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development such that a destination area’s environmental resource base (including natural, built, and cultural features is protected for future development (pp. 850).
Swarbrooke (1999, pp. 13) also provides a definition stating that sustainable tourism is
“tourism which is economically viable but does not destroy the resources on which the future of tourism will depend, notably the physical environment and the social fabric of the host
community.” Globalization and modernization provided simultaneous opportunities and threats especially to national cultures, heritages and identity. Therefore governments have to consider what is more important: keeping up with global trends or preserving one’s traditions and values (Valčić & Domšić, 2011). As more and more people explore and travel the globe, the notion of protecting and preserving cultures has become a major issue. The UNWTO (2016) states that the number of international tourist arrivals around the globe is expected to rise by an average of 3.3% a year between 2010-2030. This means that it is expected that 43 million more people a year will travel to international destinations and at this projected rate of growth international tourists worldwide are predicted to reach 1.4 billion by 2020 and 1.8 billion by 2030. With this steady growth of tourist traveling around the world some communities are at risk of
environmental damages, exploitation, and damage to historical and cherished sites. Furthermore, globalization and modern developments have the potential to bring opportunity but also possibly threaten national cultures, heritage, and identity. In some cases, cities and regions are finding it more poignant to follow global trends and fashions rather than to preserve their traditional heritage by reviving the local traditions, history, and values. By following global trends and modernizing, some cities lose their cultural value and in return become less attractive to visitors, locals, and investors alike (Valčić & Domšić, 2011).
It is essential that industries do their best to create and promote sustainable tourist
activities and that travelers educate themselves how to be more responsible as tourists. In a study
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by Valčić & Domšić (2011), they proposed that information communication technologies (ICT) can help destination management systems present cultural heritage in an appealing way that peaks the interest of the global tourism audience. They explain that the objective is to create value from local knowledge and information and then disseminate this information worldwide on digital platforms. Ultimately digital platforms can facilitate destination awareness, information provision, inventory awareness, and even function as a virtual tour.
I argue that NGOs and social enterprises can also play a crucial role in portraying cultural heritage to appeal to tourists. Especially somewhere like Cambodia, NGO’s and social
enterprises can use social media platforms to disseminate information about their country’s culture while also educating the public about sustainable travel. In particular, PPSA and PPSE have worked towards promoting sustainable tourist practices by sharing blog articles about how buying circus tickets supports the livelihood of the artists. They often share articles about places to visit in Siem Reap and Battambang that better the community. Furthermore, PPSA and PPSE celebrate Cambodian artists and intangible heritages while also educating the public about traditions and history via their social media channels.