非政府組織採用並使用社交媒體呈現非物質遺產及展現柬埔寨藝術—以Phare Ponleu Selpak和Phare表演社會企業為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文 Master’s Thesis 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 非政府組織採用並使用社交媒體呈現非物質遺產及展現柬埔寨藝術—以立 Phare Ponleu Selpak 和 Phare 表演社會企業為例. ‧. NGO Adoption and Use of Social Media for Portraying Intangible Heritage and Celebrating Cambodian Arts: A Case Study on Phare Ponleu Selpak and Phare Performing Social Enterprise. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. i Un. v. hi n g c Caroline Student: 凱洛琳eMary Hosey Advisor: 方孝謙 Shiaw-Chian Fong. 中華民國 107 年 6 月 June 2018. i.

(2) . 非政府組織採用並使用社交媒體呈現非物質遺產及展現柬埔寨藝術—以 Phare Ponleu Selpak 和 Phare 表演社會企業為例. NGO Adoption and Use of Social Media for Portraying Intangible Heritage and Celebrating Cambodian Arts: A Case Study on Phare Ponleu Selpak and Phare Performing Social Enterprise. Student: Mary Caroline Hosey Advisor: Shiaw-Chian Fong. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 國立政治大學. 國際傳播英語碩士學位學程. ‧. n. e. ngch A Thesis. sit. io. Ch. er. Nat. al. y. 碩士論文. i. i Un. v. Submitted to International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國. 107 年 6 月. June 2018. i.

(3) . Acknowledgements First I would like to thank my advisor, Professor Shiaw Chian Fong for his support, patience, and guidance during the thesis writing process. I would also like to extend my gratitude toward my committee members, Professor Hong Chi Shiau and Professor Sewen Sun, for their thoughtful and discerning critique that aided me in delving deeper into my topic and pushed me to be more critical in my process.. Next I would like to thank the members at Phare Ponleu Selpak who made this project possible. 治 the organization, and helped me to come by allowing me to interview their staff, volunteer 政 with 立. to Cambodia.. 大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. y. Additionally, I am grateful to the faculty of IMICS, in particular Professor TJ Shih and Phoebe. er. io. sit. Yang. Professor Shih helped me to find a suitable advisor when I was unsure of who was most. n. suited for my topic. He also offered many a words of encouragement v during my time at IMICS. I. l C ni U h ng chi also am grateful for Phoebe who helped with ethe paperwork process and booking my room for. the proposal and final defense. Furthermore, thank you to all my professors in IMICS who have helped me in learning research design and communication theories, which provided a strong foundation for my thesis paper.. Finally, I would like to thank my fellow classmates and family for their love and unconditional support. Especially to my father, thank you for the words of encouragement to keep fighting in those moments when I felt completely overwhelmed. Your belief in me inspired me to preserve and remain ambitious in completing this project.. i.

(4) Abstract There has been extensive literature published about NGO adoption and use of social media, however these studies have only focused on large, and primarily Western operated organizations, while research on NGO and social enterprise adoption in emergent nations is drastically limited. Cambodia was particularly relevant for a study on social media, because in fact Facebook has surpassed television as Cambodian people’s main source for gathering news. In particular this research focused on a famous Khmer-owned NGO, Phare Ponleu Selpak and their sister organization the Phare Performing Social Enterprise. This organization is well-known in Cambodia, because they produce world-renowned visual and performing artists, and are especially known for the circus, which is a major tourism attraction in Siem Reap. In this anthropological, exploratory case study, I conducted in-depth interviews with key. staff members and executed a thematic analysis PPSA and PPSE’s social media platforms in 政 of 治. 大立 order to unveil the reasons for social media adoption as well as an in-depth analysis of the ‧ 國. 學. strategies involved. The results indicated that community engagement and organizational transparency were the key indicators for social media adoption. For strategy, community. ‧. engagement and informational postings were also more important than posts that prompted. Nat. sit. y. actions such as donating, voting, or participating. Finally, social media was seen as a vital tool in. er. io. the dissemination of information about Cambodian arts and intangible heritages, because. a. n. v due to the state owned media. l Cinformation in Cambodia Facebook has become the key source for ni. he. i U. h n g chistory Therefore, Cambodians are able to learn about their and the arts by following PPSA and PPSE, particularly on Facebook. Furthermore, tourists can also celebrate and learn about Cambodian art and intangible heritage through these social media channels. Keywords: Nongovernmental Organization, Social Enterprise, Social Media, Social Media Adoption and Use, Intangible Heritage. i.

(5) . Table of Contents List Of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................ v Chapter 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Research Background .............................................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Research Purpose ....................................................................................................................................... 5. sit. Nat. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Chapter 2 Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO) .............................................................................................. 8 2.1.1 Phare Ponleu Selpak .............................................................................................................................................. 9 2.2 The Social Enterprise .............................................................................................................................. 10 2.2.1 Phare Performing Social Enterprise .............................................................................................................. 11 2.3 Cambodia’s History: The Khmer Rouge Regime ............................................................................. 13 2.4 Tourism in Cambodia ............................................................................................................................. 15 2.5 Sustainability ............................................................................................................................................. 18 2.5.1 Cultural Sustainability ....................................................................................................................................... 22. 政治大 2.5.2 Social Sustainability ........................................................................................................................................... 24. 立 2.5.3 Sustainable Tourism ........................................................................................................................................... 25. 2.6 Intangible Heritage .................................................................................................................................. 27 2.6.1 Inventory of Intangible Heritage in Cambodia ......................................................................................... 28 2.7 Social Media .............................................................................................................................................. 29 2.8 NGO Adoption and Use of Social Media ............................................................................................. 33 2.8.1 NGO Adoption of Social Media Model ...................................................................................................... 35 2.8.2 NGO Use of Social Media .................................................................................................................... 37. er. io. Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................................ 40. n. Research Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 40 al iv n Ch 3.1 Method Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 40 engchi U 3.1.1 Content Analysis ................................................................................................................................................. 43. 3.1.2 Digital Ethnography ........................................................................................................................................... 44 3.1.3 Qualitative Interviews ....................................................................................................................................... 46 3.2 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 49 3.3 Research Location .................................................................................................................................... 54 Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................................ 55 Results ..................................................................................................................................................... 55 4.1 Adoption of Social Media ....................................................................................................................... 55 4.1.1 Strategy ................................................................................................................................................................... 56 4.1.2 Capacity .................................................................................................................................................................. 59 4.1.3 Governance ............................................................................................................................................. 63 4.1.4 Environment ......................................................................................................................................................... 65 4.1.5 Community Engagement .................................................................................................................................. 67 4.1.6 Transparency ........................................................................................................................................................ 71 4.2 Information, Community, and Action ................................................................................................. 73 4.3 Social Media Themes ............................................................................................................................... 77 4.3.2 Community Stories ............................................................................................................................................. 86. ii.

(6) 4.3.3 Sustainability ........................................................................................................................................................ 90. Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................................ 97 Conclusion and Discussion ................................................................................................................. 97 5.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 97 5.2 Discussions .............................................................................................................................................. 101 5.3 Future Research: ................................................................................................................................... 103 Sources: ............................................................................................................................................... 103 Appendix 1: Interview Questions ..................................................................................................... 110 Appendix 2: Interview Consent Form ............................................................................................. 113. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. iii.

(7) . List Of Figures. sit. io. n. er. Nat. y. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Figure 1: PPSA and PPSE Business Model …………………………………………………………..…………12. Figure 2: January 2017 Executive Summary Report of Tourism Highlight Statistics………....16 . Figure 3: Cambodia at a Glance according to the Word Bank Organization (2017)…………...16. Figure 4: Four Well-Beings of Community Sustainability……………………………………………......20. Figure 5: Nathan Cardinal and Emilie Adin’s Sustainability Model ……………………………….....21. Figure 6: Necessary Attributes for a Socially Sustainable Community ………………………….....25. Figure 7: Data Collection Process …………………………………………………. ……………………………...42. 政治大 Figure 8: The Process of Abductive Thematic Analysis …………………………………………………..50 立. Figure 9: Map of Cambodia …………………………………………………………………………………………...53. Figure 10: PPSE Facebook Example ………………………………………………………………………………72. Figure 11: PPSE Facebook Post about Circus as Intangible Heritage ……………………………….81. Figure 12: PPSA Twitter Post about Apsara Dance as Intangible Heritage ………………………82 al. iv n Ch Figure 13: PPSA Instagram Post about Traditional Dance as Intangible Heritage……………..82 engchi U. Figure 14: PPSE Post about ‘Influence’ Circus Show………………………………………………………..84. Figure 15: PPSE Post about Eclipse Circus Show ……………………………………………………………84. Figure 16: PPSA Community Story Post on Instagram ……………………………………………………87. Figure 17: PPSA Community Story Post on Instagram ……………………………………………………88. Figure 18: PPSA Community Story Post on Twitter ………………………………………………………..88. Figure 19: PPSE Post of Documentary Video about Circus Performer ……………………………..90. Figure 20: PPSA Shouting Out to a Blogger about Writing about Sustainable Tourism……..92. Figure 21: PPSE Sharing a Link to Show How Visiting the Circus has a Major Impact……….92. iv.

(8) Figure 22: PPSE Sharing a Blog about Sustainable Attractions in Siem Reap …………………...93 Figure 23: PPSE Green Initiative Post…………………………………………………………………………….94. Figure 24: PPSE Post about #Refillnotlandfill ………………………………………………………………..95. Figure 25: PPSE Post about Minimizing Carbon Footprint………………………………………………95. List of Tables. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Table 1: List of Interviewees …………………………………………………………………………………………47. 政治大 Table 2: Operational Definitions of Coding Scheme for NGO Use of Social Media ……………..51 立. Table 3: Operational Definitions of Coding Scheme for NGO Use of Social Media……………...53. Table 4: PPSA’s Frequencies of Information, Community, and Action Posts …………………….74. Table 5: PPSE’s Frequencies of Information, Community, and Action Posts……………………..76. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. v.

(9) . Chapter 1 Introduction. “Travel isn’t always pretty. It isn’t always comfortable. Sometimes it hurts, it even breaks your heart. But that’s okay. The journey changes you; it should change you. It leaves marks on your memory, on your consciousness, on your heart, and on your body. You take something with you. Hopefully, you leave something good behind. -Anthony Bourdain Throughout my life, I have always been a thrill seeker, an adventurer, a wandering vagabond. Inspired by Beatnik authors such as Jack Kerouac, I felt most free and uninhibited. 治. 政 nature大 when I was on the road. My curious and inquisitive eventually led me to Asia, and in 立. ‧ 國. 學. particular Cambodia. With a camera in hand, I set off to the Battambang province to work as a photographer and social media contributor for a famous art school, Phare Ponleu Selpak. Never. Nat. sit. y. ‧. did I expect to become so captivated by a place.. a. er. io. Each day, I was required to quietly and stilly observe the daily activities of some. n. iv incredibly talented art students and theirl teachers. I was alsoninvited to accompany social. Ch. engchi U. workers to see the real struggles and lives of Cambodian people who believe that an arts education will bring their children a better life. The locals shared with me their stories about rebuilding Cambodia after the horrific civil war and reign of the Khmer Rogue and what the arts mean to their society. I remember a moment, visiting a home that did not have walls on all four sides, and the grandmother, who has lived through unimaginable circumstances, offered her cot for me to sit, as she had nothing else. There was a remarkable kindness to Cambodian people as well as persevering spirit that had a profound affect on me. When doing my photography, my favorite place was sitting under the Banyan trees watching people meticulously carve shadow puppets from cow’s hide leather while musicians 1.

(10) drummed steadily on a traditional xylophone. There is something about the arts that is intrinsically beautiful and enchanting. Arts have the ability to capture the past, present, and future. They are the stories of a people. Arts are a universal language. Day by day, instead of a strange, foreign observer, I became a participant. I decided to return to Cambodia to conduct this study, because I felt that the compelling stories of these artists and this organization was something worth writing about. Phare Ponleu Selpak (PPSA) and their partner organization, Phare Performing Social Enterprise (PPSE) both strive to alleviate poverty through arts educational programs and professional development. PPSA provides professional training in circus arts, traditional music, traditional dance, graphic. 政治. 大 on providing sustainable design, computer animation, and visual art, while PPSE works. 立. ‧ 國. 學. occupational opportunities for the graduates.. At PPSA I was hired to work as a photographer and the communications intern, focusing. ‧. sit. y. Nat. mostly on social media development and strategy. By working with Phare Ponleu Selpak I was. er. io. able to have a first hand experience of how their communications strategies were implemented.. n. a. v. l Cthe emphasis on community One of the fascinating things I found was engagement and their ni. hengchi U. unique ways of showing the daily lives of the artists through blogging, photography, and captioned posts. I realized that social media has the capacity to introduce the world to these artists, and my curiosity was piqued about the perceptions and strategies involved in the social media process. When I left my internship to return to my graduate courses, I was still left with many questions, especially in terms of how social media can play an essential role in capturing and conveying Cambodian arts and intangible heritage. Therefore I decided it worthy to investigate PPSA and PPSE’S unique practices of social media for this Master’s thesis.. 2.

(11) . 1.1 Research Background The rapid diffusion of social media outlets such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram have ushered in a wave of possibilities for organizations to engage and communicate with the general public and their core stakeholders. Because social media is becoming a predominant tool for businesses around the globe, researchers have found it essential to study how organizations are adopting these digital tools (Lee & Kotler, 2016; McLennan, 2014; Nah & Saxton, 2013; Lovejoy & Saxton, 2012; Macnamara & Zerfass, 2012). In particular, NGOs and social enterprises have been able to capitalize on the. 治. 政them to connect practicalities of social media because it allows 大 with their key stakeholders, they 立. ‧ 國. 學. can recruit more volunteers, and they can engage with their community. Social media has been a vital component in driving website traffic and accomplishing goals related to development. ‧. initiatives (McLennan, 2014; Nah et al., 2013; Lovejoy et al., 2012). Furthermore, social media. sit. y. Nat. n. a. is to use money to support a cause, thisl can be crucial.. Ch. engchi. er. io. is greatly more cost efficient than traditional media sources, so for organizations whose key goal. i Un. v. This study builds upon two previous studies that deciphered why social media is adopted and how it is used by NGOs. The first model comes from Nah and Saxton’s (2013) study that investigated the reasons NGOs adopt social media. Nah and Saxton (2013) found that there were four key components: strategy, capacity, governance, and environment. Strategy involves fundraising, lobbying, and market-based goals; capacity deals with organizational size, website age, and website reach; governance is about whether or not stakeholders have influences in the communications strategy; and finally, environment deals with external resources. Ultimately, Nah and Saxton (2013) proposed that these factors all have correlations to whether social media is adopted. 3.

(12) The other study used as a reference in this paper comes from Lovejoy and Saxton (2012), who explained how NGOs use social media, particularly the popular micro-blogging site, Twitter. They found that the three ways NGOs use social media are to spread information, to engage with the community, and to make calls for action. Informational posts are those that share activities, news, highlights, facts, or reports. Community posts are those that are conversational such as questions, giving thanks or appreciation, and acknowledgements. Finally action posts are when the organization wants the audience or public to do something such as vote, donate, attend an event, lobby or advocate a policy, or learn how to become involved. The studies developed from Nah and Saxton (2013) and Lovejoy and Saxton (2012) offer. 政治. 大 media, and this study attempts to valuable insights into how and why NGOs adopt and use social. 立. ‧ 國. 學. expand their study by adapting their models to the setting of a developing nation, more specifically, Cambodia. In developing regions, such as Cambodia, many NGOs and social. ‧. sit. y. Nat. enterprises are using social media in order to improve the society and make a better life for. er. io. people. Social media has become an integral tool in allowing NGOs to become transparent in. n. a. v. l C to the public. Furthermore, making their missions and goals accessible NGOs use social media ni. hengchi U. to market destinations in order to generate money that will further sustain these poverty-stricken regions. Also social media has become a prominent source for information and news, particularly in countries with state-owned media. Social media, particularly Facebook, is heavily used by Cambodian people, and Facebook has even surpassed television as an outlet for news (Paviour, 2017). In Cambodia, traditional media is run by the Cambodian People’s Party (CPP), so social media, particularly Facebook, has become an essential source for information.. 4.

(13) 1.2 Research Purpose Since most of the previous studies have primarily focuses on only providing analysis of Western non-profit and social organizations, this study contributes a new perspective by investigating social media adoption and use in the setting of a developing nation. Specifically, this research has investigated why NGOs and social enterprises in emergent nations are adopting social media while also simultaneously explaining how these communicative devices are being used. This thesis uses a qualitative method, as this research is an ethnographic, explorative case study. Preliminary data consisting of observational 治 field notes were collected during January-. 政. 大立 February 2017, and after submitting the research proposal, I returned to Cambodia in February ‧ 國. 學. 2018 to conduct interviews with staff members. The interviews were held with the. ‧. communications staff at PPSA and PPSE in order to answer why this NGO and social enterprise. Nat. io. sit. y. has decided to incorporate social media as a vital communications strategy. The coding for the. n. al. er. interview questions were based on Nah and Saxton’s (2013) model which provided exemplary. Ch. i Un. v. explanations for why NGOs adopted social media. e n g Using c h i Nah and Saxton’s (2012) model, members of PPSA and PPSE were asked questions along the notions of strategy, capacity, governance, and environment to see how these factors play a role in social media adoption. What was found was that these were not the only factors that influenced social media adoption and use. Instead two other codes emerged, community engagement and organizational transparency. Additionally, thematic content analysis was employed in order to provide a deeper context of social media use. The platforms analyzed were Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, because all three of these platforms are used by PPSA and PPSE. Using the coding presented in Lovejoy and Saxton’s (2012) research, this study explains how PPSA disseminates information,. 5.

(14) makes calls for action, and how they engage with their community on their social media platforms. No other codes emerged during this analysis, however I found that community engagement was higher than in Lovejoy and Saxton’s study, and the organization intends to incorporate more community engagement posts in their future strategy. Also Lovejoy and Saxton (2012) only analyzed Twitter, so my study shows how Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are used differently. Finally, I analyzed the social media for particular themes, and found that intangible heritage and the personal narratives of the community members were the key focus of PPSA’s content. For PPSE they are focused primarily on selling the circus tickets, however there were. 政治. 大 and the personal stories of the still many posts that gave information about Cambodia’s history. 立. ‧ 國. 學. artists. I was also able to interview the founders of PPSA who were refugees during the Khmer Rogue. By talking with them, I was able to understand more deeply what the arts mean to. ‧. y. sit. er. io. social media channels.. Nat. Cambodian people and how they feel about the world being exposed to Cambodian arts via. n. a. v. The results of this study providel an n i analysis and anthropological C in depth, descriptive. hengchi U. interpretation of how the Cambodian educational NGO, Phare Ponleu Selpak (PPSA) and their partner organization Phare Performing Creative Enterprise (PPSE) use social media. This study provides a unique and original contribution to the literature on NGO adoption and use of social media, because Cambodia has a unique political environment as well as social media behaviors that are worth examination. Thus, a model of reference will be provided so other researchers can observe how social media is used in emergent nations.. 6.

(15) . Chapter 2 Literature Review In this chapter, the variables and key terms are defined to provide context for this research study. The sections in this chapter are presented in a systematic order to provide a frame of reference for the researcher’s questions. The first sections introduce the definitions of an NGO (2.1) and a social enterprise (2.2) because Phare Ponleu Selpak (PPSA) is an NGO and their. 治 (PPSE) is a social enterprise. It is partner organization Phare Performing Social 政Enterprise. 大立 important to distinguish the two, because though they have similar initiatives, their business ‧ 國. 學. models are different, which could in turn affect the social media strategy.. ‧. Nat. y. Next the literature introduces important and relevant aspects of Cambodia such as their. er. io. sit. history (2.3) particularly discussing the reign of the Khmer Rouge. This is important, because. n. during this time, many of the artists and a educated people werevbrutally murdered, and much of. l C ni U h i PPSE are organizations that celebrate e nPPSA g c hand Cambodian’s arts and temples were destroyed. the arts, so it is important to understand the history in order to decipher the value of their missions. After the history is introduced, I discuss Cambodian tourism (2.4), because recently Cambodia has seen a huge boom in international visitors. Though this is great for the economy, tourism comes with some threats such as environmental damages, exploitation of citizens, and the destruction of historical sites. Therefore many NGOs and social enterprises, especially in Cambodia, have taken the responsibility to include sustainable initiatives in their missions. PPSA and PPSE do this by sustaining intangible heritages such as Apsara dance, shadow puppet making, and the circus while also promoting themselves as a sustainable tourist destination.. 7.

(16) Therefore, sustainability (2.5) is introduced focusing first on sustainability as an umbrella concept, then giving further depictions by defining cultural sustainability (2.5.1), social sustainability (2.5.2) and sustainable tourism (2.5.3). Next, the concept of intangible heritage (2.6) is introduced. Sustainability and intangible heritage are the theoretical lens for the thematic analysis of the social media content. Finally social media (2.7) is defined concluding with NGO adoption and use of social media (2.8) following. In this section the models for the research method are introduced along with the accompanying research questions.. 2.1 Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO) 治. 立. 政. 大. ‧ 國. 學. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), also know as nonprofit organizations, serve to address social and political issues independently from governmental organizations. Some of the. ‧. functions of NGOs are to present concerns of the citizens to the government, to advocate for. sit. y. Nat. a. er. io. particular policies, to protect human rights and the environment, help implement international. n. v and discussion, and promote agreements, encourage citizens to participate in political activities l ni. Ch. engchi U. and preserve cultural affairs. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the proliferation of NGOs in developing countries (Burger et al., 2015). Internationally, NGOs are mostly recognized for their roles in “delivering developmental services or implementing developmental activities, at the ground level in many poor countries (Burger et al., 2015).” The way in which an NGO is managed is crucial, because “the ability to act in accordance with their mission, utilize resources efficiently, and balance the interests of external stakeholders and internal constituencies… have implications for its general organizational effectiveness, vitality, and dynamism (Getachew, 2014, pp. 25).” In order for an NGO to be successful and effective, it needs to concentrate on components such as the “characteristics of an 8.

(17) organization’s internal systems, structure, work, and working culture (Getachew, 2014, pp. 25).” The reason an organization’s values, mission statements, and visions are important is because they aid in driving the actions of those involved to work towards the achievement of a common known goal. Furthermore, having a common goal helps the NGO distinguish a unique image and identity. (Getachaw, 2014). 2.1.1 Phare Ponleu Selpak Phare Ponleu Selpak (PPSA) is an NGO whose mission is to improve the lives of Cambodian children and young adults by providing access to arts education and social support.. 治. 政 Selpak is大 PPSA’s mission statement states: “Phare Ponleu dedicated to providing a nurturing and 立. ‧ 國. 學. creative environment where young people can access quality arts training, education, and social support (Phare Ponleu Selpak, n.d.).” In today’s society Battambang is increasingly becoming. ‧. sit. y. Nat. more recognizable on the tourist trail, but the city still struggles with many social problems such. er. io. as school dropouts, domestic violence, drug abuse, illegal migrations to Thailand, exploitation,. a. n. v abuse, and extreme poverty. Therefore lPPPSA n i approach to solving social C “takes a holistic. hengchi U. problems through the arts, education, and social work (Phare Ponleu Selpak, n.d.).” PPSA was founded in 1994 by nine refugees and a French social worker who knew each other from being stationed in the Site II Refugee Camp along the Thai and Cambodian border. While living in the refugee camp, these nine refugees found reassurance and consolation from the terrors of war by participating in drawing classes offered by Veronique Decrop, the French humanitarian worker. Before returning to Battambang Cambodia, the refugees taking these drawing classes, believed that using art therapy would be an excellent solution in rebuilding their war-torn city (Phare Ponleu Selpak, n.d.).. 9.

(18) In 1992 the group of refugees returned to Battambang, Cambodia where conflicts from the Khmer Rouge were still left unresolved. Though much of Cambodia was in the process of rebuilding, Battambang was in the center of guerilla warfare between the Vietnamese Regime and the Khmer Rouge. When the Vietnamese took hold of Phnom Penh in 1979, many of the Khmer Rouge leaders and soldiers “fled westward to the mountainous terrain of Koh Kong Province and the dense juggles of the Battambang province (Chen, 2016).” During the time period between 1980-1996, the Khmer Rouge continued fighting the Vietnamese occupation through guerilla warfare. In 1996 a deal was orchestrated where “Pailin province a small area of land carved out of Battambang was promised to the Khmer Rouge leadership in exchange for. 政治. 大 (Chen, 2016). It was not until reintegrating their supporters and fighters into the government. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 1998, when Pol Pot died, that the Civil war was officially over in Cambodia, and in 1999 it was established that the Khmer Rouge was obsolete (Leitsinger, 2010). Therefore, the refugees came. ‧. y. sit. er. io. Ponleu Selpak, n.d.).. Nat. home finding many orphaned children still suffering from the traumas and abuses of war (Phare. n. a. v. l Cimmediately got to The group of refugees and Decrop n i work building an art school, Phare. hengchi U. Ponleu Selpak (PPSA) that offered drawing classes for free to any child in the Battambang province. Two years later, in 1996, PPSA incorporated music classes to the curriculum, and then in 1998 the circus program was established. PPSA has continued to grow to later incorporate the kindergarten, a library, and social support programs (Phare Ponleu Selpak, n.d.).. 2.2 The Social Enterprise. A social enterprise is “a management practice that integrates principles of private enterprise with social sector goals and objectives (Fernando, 2017).” Broadly speaking, social. 10.

(19) enterprises are based on a “premise of frame-breaking and innovation in the social sector (Dart, 2004, pp. 413).” What this means is that though the intention is to make a profit like a traditional business, the ultimate goal is social change (Dees, 1998; Pedro & McLean, 2006). Generally businesses aim to generate wealth, however social enterprises distribute the profits to shareholders (Peattie & Morley, 2008), or the funds are used to solve some sort of social crisis (Dacin et al., 2010; Dahles et al., 2010; Martin & Osberg, 2007). Social enterprises are responsible for adopting a social mission that is sustainable and does not only have private value. In order to fulfill this mission, the organization should work relentlessly on pursuing new opportunities to fulfill治 that mission, and to do so they must engage. 政. 大立 in a process of continuous innovation, learning, and adapting strategies. Social enterprises have a ‧ 國. 學. high level of accountability to the constituencies served and the outcomes that occur (Dart,. ‧. io. al. sit. y. Nat. 2.2.1 Phare Performing Social Enterprise. er. 2004).. n. iv n C h e n g cself-sufficient In 2013 PPSA aimed to become financially and sustainable, so they hi U created the Phare Performing Social Enterprise (PPSE) with three missions. The first was to create meaningful employment opportunities for Cambodian artists. The second was to develop a financially sustainable social business that provided a reliable income stream to PPSA. Finally, the third goal was to revitalize the arts sector in Cambodia that was destroyed during the war era. The third goal was also established in order for Cambodian art to be available to those locally and around the globe (Phare, the Cambodian Circus, n.d.). There are three organizations that fall under the Phare Performing Social Enterprise and they are Phare, The Cambodian Circus, Phare Productions International, and Phare Creative Studio (Phare, the Cambodian Circus, n.d.).. 11.

(20) Phare Productions International customizes private events, international performances, and tours across Asia, Europe, and the United States. So far they have coordinated for PPSA artists and the circus performers to attend the Korean Ansan Street Arts Festival 2016, the “Khmer Metal” USA tour, and “Galaxy Khmer” located at the HAU theater in Berlin, Germany in January 2014 (Phare, the Cambodian Circus, n.d.). The Phare Creative studio was launched recently at the end of 2016. The studio creates 2d animation, graphic design, and illustrations. They are also involved with producing professional videos and recording services. For this program, the students are graduates from the VAAS school at the Battambang campus. The complete business model and relationship. 政治大. between PPSA and PPSE is demonstrated in Figure 1.. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Figure 1. PPSA and PPSE business model. 12.

(21) . 2.3 Cambodia’s History: The Khmer Rouge Regime Since PPSA is an arts education program, it is important to understand the historical and political background of Cambodia’s recent past in order to grasp PPSA’s mission. According to Duggan (1996, pp. 363), “Formal education in Cambodia is constrained to the independence period (1953-1973) and the post Pol Pot period (1979-1995).” Cambodian education used to be mostly restricted to royalty and the upper class, so most Cambodian people spent their time in agricultural production or defending its borders against the Thai and Vietnamese. In 1953. 政治大. Cambodians began to have a strong national 立 interest in developing a higher educational system,. ‧ 國. 學. so when Cambodia was granted independence from the French in 1953, Prince Norodom. ‧. Sihanouk began to vigorously promote a national interest in higher education. In the early part. sit. y. Nat. of the 1960’s, the Cambodian government began a “rapid expansion in the provision of. n. al. er. io. education and an equally rapid escalation in the levels of education offered (Duggan, 1996, pp. 363-364).”. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Unfortunately, the education system developed by Sihanouk was more beneficial and biased towards those living in the major cities. Therefore, those in the rural regions of Cambodia did not benefit from the prince’s selective expansion strategies. As a result, the newly built universities caused a wider divide between the urban elites and the impoverished rural citizens. (Duggan, 1996). This educational divide led citizens to resent the powerful elite, which made them more susceptible to the antiestablishment and anti-elite messages promoted by the Khmer Rouge.. 13.

(22) The tensions in Cambodia increased further as the USA went to war with Vietnam. Throughout the 1970’s the United Stated began to lose control of the Vietnam war which in turn coincided with the rise of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. The socioeconomic achievements that were gained from Sihanouk’s newly developed education systems were lost by the 1960’s. In 1972 the Vietnam war was nearing its end, while civil war and aerial bombardment were plaguing Cambodia and damaging all facets of Khmer life, especially the newfound education systems (Dugan 1996). From 1975 to 1979 the Khmer Rouge hostilely and violently destroyed as much of the institutional infrastructure as possible, with members of higher education as a primary target.. 政治. 大and social elites were mass murdered Many professors, artists, higher education students, monks,. 立. ‧ 國. 學. or fled the country. According to Duggan (1996):. sit. io. er. Nat. y. ‧. It is estimated that between 75-80% of Cambodia’s teachers and higher education students fled or died . . . A less well-known outcome was the loss of some 67% of primary and secondary students during the same time period. The United Nations Transitional Army in Cambodia (UNTAC) assessed that by 1970 there were no more than 300 qualified persons from all disciplines left in the country and all educational books, equipment, and facilities a had been destroyed (pp. 365). n. iv l C n e nstill The Khmer Rouge left scars, which hare h i U as Cambodia still struggles to g capparent. rebuild their infrastructure and economy today. According to the World Bank Organization (2017) Health and education are still at the forefront of development initiatives and are major priorities for Cambodia. The World Bank (2017) estimated that 33% (about half a million) of children under the age of five have impaired growth and development. Fortunately net enrollment in primary education has increased to 97% in 2016 from 82% in 1997. Though more children are attending primary school, completion rates are still at a mere 43% which are significantly below average compared to other lower middle-income countries. Furthermore,. 14.

(23) 79% of Cambodian’s population (12.3 million people) do not have access to piped water supplies and 58% (9.3 million people) do not have adequate access to improved sanitation. Though Cambodia has made significant strides in the past two decades there is still progress to be made, particularly in rural communities. Fortunately, Cambodia is currently experiencing economic growth mostly due to tourism and garment exports (The World Bank, 2017). Therefore, it is essential that NGOs focus their efforts on sustainable tourism so Cambodian are protected and can thrive in the future.. 2.4 Tourism in Cambodia. 政治大. One of the benefits of the tourism 立 industry is that it can actually help promote peace and. ‧ 國. 學. stability in developing counties. This is done by helping these developing communities create the. ‧. proper infrastructure for jobs, generating income, diversifying the economy, protecting the. io. sit. y. Nat. environment, and promoting cross-cultural awareness (Honey & Gilpin, 2009). Tourism has the. al. er. capacity to increase peace, safety, and security, which in turn aids in fostering better cross-. n. iv n C h e n gnegative cultural relations and interactions to help alleviate c h i U stereotypes and advocate benevolence among citizens of different nations (UNESCO, n.d.).. According to the World Bank Organization (2017) report, the population in Cambodia is 15.58 million people with a GDP at $18.05billion as of 2015 records. The GDP growth is 7% with 3% inflation (see Figure 2).. 15.

(24) . Figure 2. Cambodia at a Glance according to the World Bank Organization (2017).. Cambodia has seen a steady increase in international tourism since 2004. From 2004-. 政治. 大tourism receipts every year with 2016, there has been an increase in international arrivals and. 立. ‧ 國. 學. large booms between 2004-2007 and 2010-2013 (Tourism Cambodia, n.d.). As seen in Figure 3,. ‧. 5,011,712 international tourists visited Cambodia in 2016, which is up 5% from 2015.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Figure 3. January 2017 Executive Summary Report of Tourism Highlight Statistics (TourismCambodia.org). 16.

(25) Figure 3 also indicates that tourist expenditures in 2016 were 3.2 billion dollars, which is up 200 million from 2015 (Tourism Cambodia, n.d.). For 2017, Prime Minister Hun Sen is projecting an increase to 5.4 million international tourists (Ngamsangchaikit, 2017). As of April 2017, in the first quarter of the year there were 682,480 international arrivals to Siem Reap, 455,675 to Phnom Penh, and 27,046 to Sihanoukville. There were also an additional 670,478 land arrivals and 80,142 waterway arrivals, totaling in 1,915,821 visitors just in the first quarter of 2017 (Tourism Cambodia, n.d.). An article was published from Sky Scanner Ltd (2016) indicating the top cities to visit in Cambodia. First on the list was Phnom Phenh, Cambodia’s 治 capital where visitors can see the. 政. 大立 Royal Palace as well as the Silver Pagoda. Just outside of Phnom Penh are the killing fields ‧ 國. 學. where it is estimated that over one million people were executed during the reign of the Khmer. ‧. Rouge. Though it is a sobering site, many people visit to hear the tales of the people and to better. Nat. io. sit. y. understand Cambodia’s violent past. Siem Reap and Angkor also make the list due to the. n. al. er. popularity of the Angkor Wat temple complex. Siem Reap is also famous for the Phare Circus,. Ch. i Un. v. Pub Street, and floating village tours. Sihanoukville i on the list as it is a popular beach e n g cishnext town with lots of bars and resorts. If visitors want to hit up some islands, Koh Rong and Koh Rong Samloem are also ideal beach spots. Finally, Kampot is a charming riverside town that is popular for the Epic Arts Café, a social enterprise employing disabled people who also give outstanding dance performances (McGloin, 2016). Though there are many incredible places to visit in Cambodia, when most people visit Cambodia, they visit Siem Reap to see the Angkor Wat Temple Complex, the largest religious complex in the world. Angkor Wat is a world heritage site, built in the 12th century, and it is revered by the Cambodian people as a source of national pride (Ray, 2016). According to the. 17.

(26) Phnom Penh post (2108), nearly 2.5 million visitors came to the Angkor Wat temple complex resulting in ticket sales of $108 million. In 2017, the ticket prices for Angkor Wat increased from a one-day pass being $20 to $37, the two-day pass changed from $40 to $62, and the three-day went from $60 to $72. The Cambodian National Tourism Alliance assumed that the increase in ticket price would possibly deter tourists, but in fact the numbers of visitors continues to steadily rise (Spiess, 2018). Beyond the Angkor Wat temple complex, visitors come to Cambodia to experience the local culture. In Phnom Penh and Siem Reap visitors can watch Apsara dance performances usually in a dinner theater. Also in Siem Reap is the Phare Circus, where Cambodian stories are. 政治. 大and dance. There are also numerous told through the art of contortion, acrobatics, theater, music,. 立. ‧ 國. 學. temples or wats to explore throughout all of the country. For the more adventurous, it is possible to take river cruises to travel between cities while observing the floating villages. Many guests. ‧. sit. y. Nat. also enjoy taking cooking or craft workshops, to learn the certain ways of life of the local people.. al. n. Cambodia, n.d.).. er. io. Additionally, another popular activity is receiving a massage or getting a fish pedicure (Tourism. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 2.5 Sustainability There are many different views on how one defines the term sustainability. The term sustainability arises from the concept of sustainable development which became part of the world’s rhetoric after the world’s first Earth Summit in Rio, Brazil in 1992 (globalfootprints.org, 2017). Sustainability arises from the notion that resources are not limitless, so if there are no regulations or planning, these resources will be depleted and degraded (Hawkes, 2004). In 1992, the Brunland Report for the World Commission on Environment and Development defined. 18.

(27) sustainable development as, “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (globalfootprints.org, 2017). This report further declared that sustainable development “requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to fulfill their aspirations for a better life (WCED). Furthermore, sustainability is “fundamentally about adapting to a new ethic of living on the planet and creating a more equitable and just society through the fair distribution of social goods and resources (Duxbury et al., 2007, pp. 3).” Sustainable development is known to incorporate three key principles: economic development, social justice, and ecological responsibility. According to Gleeson and Low (2001,. 政治. 大 to achieve sustainable pp. 6), “these principles exhibit a dialectical tension,” because. 立. ‧ 國. 學. development, the approach on how to incorporate these principles varies, and in some cases only two out of the three can be considered in development planning. In 2001, John Hawkes proposed. ‧. sit. y. Nat. that culture was also an important facet of sustainable development. In his book, The Fourth. er. io. Pillar of Sustainability: Culture’s Essential Role in Public Planning, he integrates the four linked. n. a. v. l C responsibility, dimensions which he defines as environmental n i economic health, social equity, and. hengchi U. cultural vitality. Hawkes argued that culture must be incorporated as a fourth pillar of sustainable development, because culture itself has a major role on the environmental, economic, and social decisions that are implemented in communities. Furthermore, Hawkes argued that culture is essential because a community’s exuberance and quality of life are analogous to the quality of its cultural engagement, communication, expression, and celebration (Duxbury et al., 2007). A well-being model including cultural, environmental, social, and economic dimensions was created by the New Zealand’s Ministry for Cultural Heritage (Duxbury et al., 2007). This model is represented in Figure 4. In this model, wellbeing is when members of a community are. 19.

(28) prevented from feeling excluded, powerless, and unhappy. It is important to have a proper balance between cultural, environmental, economic, and social sustainability, because strength in one area, for example the economic sector, does not guarantee a good society (Hawkes, 2004). Wellbeing is placed at the center of this model, because wellbeing exists when the four dimensions of sustainability are given equal weight, yet interdependent (Duxbury et al. 2007).. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Figure 4. Four Well-beings of Community Sustainability (Duxbury et al., 2007). Nathan Cardinal and Emilie Adin proposed another model as a framework for exploring and documenting the state of aboriginal life in Vancouver, Canada. This model, metaphorically shaped like a medicine wheel has environment in the north sector, social in the south, economic in the west, and cultural in the east. Culture is symbolically put in the east because in aboriginal. 20.

(29) culture, beginnings start in the east as that is where the sun rises. Furthermore, the words “male, female, children/youth, and adult” crosscut the four elements. This model can be seen in Figure 5.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Figure 5. Nathan Cardinal and Emilie Adin’s Sustainability Model Though this model was meant to provide analysis for studying an aboriginal culture, it is still relevant for measuring sustainability in other cultures and communities as well. For the purpose of this case study, cultural sustainability will be further explored, because PPSA’s and PSSE’s social mission is to preserve and celebrate Cambodian culture while also providing professional development in the arts. Furthermore, sustainable tourism will also be defined, as it is an essential method of income for both PPSA and PPSE.. 21.

(30) 2.5.1 Cultural Sustainability Defining culture, is not as simple as it seems. It is one of those terms that is contested due to its complexity. However John Hawkes (2001), a leading researcher on cultural sustainability, has attributed to definitions that encompass the meaning of culture. The first is that culture is “the social production and transmission of identities, meanings, knowledge, beliefs, values, aspirations, memories, purposes, attitudes, and understanding (p.3).” The second definition states that culture is “the ‘way of life’ of a particular set of humans: customs, faiths and conventions; codes of manners, dress, cuisine, language, arts, science, technology, religion and rituals, norms and regulations of behavior, traditions and institutions 治(p. 3).”. 政. 大立 The effect that globalization is having on local cultures, has generated much debate and ‧ 國. 學. discussion. In turn, this has caused culture to come to the forefront in the process of sustainable. ‧. development (Hawkes, 2004). Culture has recently been added as, what some call, a ‘fourth. Nat. er. io. sit. y. pillar’ in the sustainable development approach. Culture is thus a separate entity from the ecological, economic, and social sustainability approaches (Laine, 2016). The key to cultural a. n. iv l C n h e n gpartnerships, sustainability is creating and fostering exchange, c h i U and respect between the various sectors of government, business, and arts organizations (Duxbury et al., 2007). John Hawkes (2004) argues that when culture is incorporated into the theoretical and operational frameworks of public affairs there are tremendous benefits. The advantages of adding culture to the sustainable framework are as follows: 1. It provides identification of the aspirations and values of communities. These values are at the foundation of society; 2. It is a definitive term that encompasses the process we use to discuss our future, evaluate our pasts, and act in the present. .. 22.

(31) 3. It brings together a range of concepts such as wellbeing, cohesion, capacity, engagement, belonging, distinctiveness to be considered in sustainable planning. Thus the concept of culture, provides a constructive tool to deal with these concepts. 4. It provides a better theoretical framework that has the capacity to combine and incorporate the full range of social relations and organizations within a framework that is comprehensive, accessible, flexible, and standardized. 5. It makes clarifying strategic objectives and implementing operations more simplistic because it is easier to find ways to integrate public opinion towards the planning process.. 政治. 大 6. It improves the integration of public program management. 立. ‧ 國. 學. From cultural sustainability emerges a certain framework referred to as community. ‧. sit. y. Nat. cultural development. Citizens in a community are able to develop their culture through. er. io. storytelling, skill-building, and actively promoting cultural values. By using arts and culture as a. n. a. v. l C fundamental tool, community cultural development aids in sustainability. It is important that ni. hengchi U. artists build a relationship with the community in order to collaborate, which in turn promotes social development and change. Community cultural development is mostly seen as a grassroots strategy, but it is an important facet of sustainability planning because it supports a community’s culture, empowers residents, and strengthens cultural infrastructure and participation. Furthermore, community cultural development has played a major role in facilitating other development initiatives such as affordable housing, healthcare, youth development, education, poverty alleviation, policy, and planning (Duxbury et al., 2007).. 23.

(32) 2.5.2 Social Sustainability Social sustainability deals with identifying and managing the positive and negative impacts that businesses have on a community. Companies have both direct and indirect affects on what happens to employees, workers, customers, and local communities. Social development thus aims to alleviate problems such as poverty and human rights violations. In order to practice social sustainability businesses can create decent jobs and provide goods and services that meet basic needs. They can also be strategic about making specific social investments which promote public policies that in turn support social sustainability. Furthermore, businesses can partner with other organizations to make a greater positive impact (Wynhoven, 2017). 政治. 大 attributes a socially sustainable Duxbury et al. (2007) comprised a list of the necessary. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. community should encompass. This list is found in Figure 6.. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 24.

(33) . 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 er. io. sit. y. Nat. n. al Figure 6. Necessary Attributes for a Socially Sustainable Community iv. Ch. n engchi U. 2.5.3 Sustainable Tourism Sustainable Tourism is a complex concept to define because it is understood to be more of an ideology or point of view rather than possessing an exact operational definition (Saarinen, 2006). However there are some broad definitions devised by researchers to portray sustainable tourism. First, Colin Hunter (1997) defines sustainable tourism as follows: The term “sustainable tourism” has come to represent and encompass a set of principles, policy prescriptions, and management methods which chart a path for tourism 25.

(34) development such that a destination area’s environmental resource base (including natural, built, and cultural features is protected for future development (pp. 850). Swarbrooke (1999, pp. 13) also provides a definition stating that sustainable tourism is “tourism which is economically viable but does not destroy the resources on which the future of tourism will depend, notably the physical environment and the social fabric of the host community.” Globalization and modernization provided simultaneous opportunities and threats especially to national cultures, heritages and identity. Therefore governments have to consider what is more important: keeping up with global trends or preserving one’s traditions and values (Valčić & Domšić, 2011). As more and more people explore and travel the globe, the notion of protecting and preserving cultures has become a major 治 issue. The UNWTO (2016) states that the. 政. 大立 number of international tourist arrivals around the globe is expected to rise by an average of ‧ 國. 學. 3.3% a year between 2010-2030. This means that it is expected that 43 million more people a. ‧. year will travel to international destinations and at this projected rate of growth international. Nat. er. io. sit. y. tourists worldwide are predicted to reach 1.4 billion by 2020 and 1.8 billion by 2030. With this steady growth of tourist traveling around a the world some communities are at risk of. n. iv l C n h e n gto i U and cherished sites. Furthermore, environmental damages, exploitation, and damage c hhistorical globalization and modern developments have the potential to bring opportunity but also possibly threaten national cultures, heritage, and identity. In some cases, cities and regions are finding it more poignant to follow global trends and fashions rather than to preserve their traditional heritage by reviving the local traditions, history, and values. By following global trends and modernizing, some cities lose their cultural value and in return become less attractive to visitors, locals, and investors alike (Valčić & Domšić, 2011). It is essential that industries do their best to create and promote sustainable tourist activities and that travelers educate themselves how to be more responsible as tourists. In a study. 26.

(35) by Valčić & Domšić (2011), they proposed that information communication technologies (ICT) can help destination management systems present cultural heritage in an appealing way that peaks the interest of the global tourism audience. They explain that the objective is to create value from local knowledge and information and then disseminate this information worldwide on digital platforms. Ultimately digital platforms can facilitate destination awareness, information provision, inventory awareness, and even function as a virtual tour. I argue that NGOs and social enterprises can also play a crucial role in portraying cultural heritage to appeal to tourists. Especially somewhere like Cambodia, NGO’s and social enterprises can use social media platforms to disseminate 治 information about their country’s. 政. 大立 culture while also educating the public about sustainable travel. In particular, PPSA and PPSE ‧ 國. 學. have worked towards promoting sustainable tourist practices by sharing blog articles about how. ‧. buying circus tickets supports the livelihood of the artists. They often share articles about places. Nat. io. sit. y. to visit in Siem Reap and Battambang that better the community. Furthermore, PPSA and PPSE. n. al. er. celebrate Cambodian artists and intangible heritages while also educating the public about. Ch. traditions and history via their social media channels. engchi. i Un. v. 2.6 Intangible Heritage According to UNESCO, cultural heritage does not only consist of objects such as monuments and collections, but it also includes oral traditions, social practices, performing arts, knowledge, and practices concerning nature and the universe, rituals, and skills for producing traditional crafts. Intangible heritage is a vital component in maintaining cultural diversity and it can be threatened by the urge to globalize or modernize. According to Kirsheblatt-Gimblett (2004), the notion of intangible heritage does not only contain the masterpieces alone, but also. 27.

(36) the masters. This means accrediting value to the ‘carriers’ and ‘transmitters’ of cultural traditions. Kirsheblatt-Gimblett (2004, pp. 53) states, “Whereas like tangible heritage, intangible heritage is culture, like natural heritage, it is alive. The task, then, is to sustain the whole system as a living entity and not just to collect intangible artifacts.” Documenting, recording, and safeguarding intangible heritages allows them to be accessible to all people, so in turn audiences, beyond the initial targets, can enjoy and appreciate them (Grahm, 2009). Social media has the capacity to safeguard intangible heritage because it can serve as an archiving device. Since 2003, UNESCO has been striving to protect and promote immaterial heritage such as dances, oral languages, festivals, ceremonies, food preparations,. 政治. 大 the platform of Youtube to embodied knowledge, rituals, and artisans. UNESCO TV uses. 立. ‧ 國. 學. transmit videos of officially recognized intangible heritages. However, individual users can also use social media channels such as YouTube to safeguard expressions, though they are not. ‧. sit. y. Nat. officially recognized. YouTube in this sense has the potential to safeguard multiple variations of. al. n. 2013). er. io. heritage, even if they challenge official accounts of heritage and national identities (Pietrobruno,. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. 2.6.1 Inventory of Intangible Heritage in Cambodia According to UNESCO (2004), Cambodia has eight categories of intangible heritage based on performing arts traditions as well as oral cultural heritage. These intangible heritages are as follows: 83 titles of classical dance (including Apsara), 49 titles of folk and popular dance, 22 forms of theater (including shadow puppet), 27 styles of music groups, traditional and modern circus, 12 ethnic minority languages, 12 genres or oral literature and folklore, and 13 types of artisan skills. One of the reasons intangible heritage is so significant in Cambodia is because. 28.

(37) about 90% of artists, musicians, playwrights, dancers, and poets were murdered, banished, or fled the country during the reign of the Khmer Rouge (Mar, 2005). For this research, I argue that NGOs and social enterprises have the ability to use social media to share and archive intangible heritage. Though YouTube has the ability to share video content that can show live footage of performance or be shot as an informational piece, other social media platforms can show intangible heritages through written posts, images, or in other video formats. PPSA and PPSE effectively preserve and share intangible heritage by publishing videos and photography of Apsara, dance, shadow puppets, Cambodian folk tales, traditional music, the circus, etc.. 立. 2.7 Social Media. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. Social media is an Internet-based application that enables the creation and exchange of. sit. y. Nat. user-generated content. Social media has drastically changed the media landscape from being a. er. io. one-to-many monologue to now a many-many dialogue. Users are able to upload images, videos,. n. a. v. texts, photos, and gifs in order to share ltheir feeling, ideas, and opinions ni C thoughts, experiences,. hengchi U. with other members on the web. Because social media is popular on a global scale it has become a powerful force of democratization, enabling communication and collaboration of people in an instantaneous and widespread manner (Lai & To, 2015).” For the purpose of this paper social media is defined as the various ways in which internet users collaborate and connect with each other online, involving actions such as contributing comments, creating blogs, sharing links or content, communicating with friends or family all via social networking sites such as Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Wordpress, Reddit, Youtube, Flikr, and Tumblr (Kirtis & Karahan, 2011).. 29.

(38) Social media is comprised of content that made of texts, pictures, videos, and networks (Berthon et al., 2012). Moreover, web2.0 is defined as “ the technical infrastructure that enables the social phenomenon of collective media and facilitates consumer generated content (Berthon et al. 2012, pp. 262). According to Kazim Kirtis and Filiz Karahan (2011, pp. 260), “social media is used because it has time, audience, relations, and cost advantage.” First, using social media as a marketing tool is cost effective because the costs for distribution are cut, and setting up a profile and page is free. Additionally, the costs of advertising and promotional materials is cheaper on social media than traditional advertising outlets (Kirtis & Karahan, 2011). Second, the audience. 政治. 大 the marketers are able to capitalize being a part of social media is of utmost importance because. 立. ‧ 國. 學. on the audience members through their comments and feedback on the social media site. Social media offers an array of channels where interaction can exist between individuals and. ‧. y. sit. er. io. (Berthon et al., 2012).. Nat. organizations. Through these interactions information is quickly facilitated and disseminated. n. a. v. For NGOs and social enterprisesl social n i are advantageous because they C media and ICT. hengchi U. can increase the timeliness of communications, leverage the networks of target audiences, expand an organization’s reach, personalize and reinforce messages, facilitate interactions, and influence desired behaviors. In Lee and Kitler’s (2016) book, Social Marketing, they reference Criag Lefebvre, a well-known social media marketing expert; he states that to use social media successfully, “we must become collaborators, conveners, facilitators, brokers, and weavers (pp. 588).” By collaborating, social marketers must work within sites that others have created such as existing blogs and social networking rather than static dissemination websites sites in order to produce a platform for group participation. As conveners, social marketers should consider. 30.

(39) innovative ways to bring people with a common purpose together to achieve a goal. However, being a convener is not simple, as it takes great effort to influence the behaviors of collaborators. Lefebvre’s notion of being a broker means that the social media and ICT sites should be a dynamic resource center where users can exchange ideas and information, solicit creative work, and comment on works in progress. Finally, Lefebvre’s notion of weavers means that organizations should use social media and ICT as tools for networking and connection (Lee & Kitler, 2016). There are multiple ways in which an organization can utilize social media for social marketing purposes. Lee and Kitler (2016) provide definitions for the tools used for social media. 政治. 大 social marketing. These tools and their definitions are as follows:. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 1. Badges- small graphic elements that include an image, a call to action, and a link for. ‧ sit. y. Nat. more information. er. io. 2. Image Sharing – involves posting images such as photos and artwork to websites. n. a. v. i l C to aggregate andnupdate 3. RSS feeds- provided the ability information and provide links from many sites in one place.. hengchi U. 4. Podcasts - a convenient way to listen to or view digital media files by downloading on a portable media device or computer when and where convenient. 5. Online video sharing - posting videos on online sites such as YouTube, Bing, and Yahoo 6. Widgets- provide interactive information and fresh content on a subject and can be accessed on an organization’s website or downloaded to personal websites.. 31.

(40) 7. e-Cards - electronic greeting cards sent to personal email accounts, often with a colorful greeting and some message that promotes or reinforces a desired behavior 8. e-Games - interactive electronic games played through applications such as the Internet, video game consoles, or mobile phones 9. Mobile Applications – such as texting, are the most portable and are quickly becoming a vital tool for timely and personalized communications 10. Blogs- regularly updated online journals with one or a team of regular authors 11. Microblogs – such as Twitter, are brief text updates of 140 or fewer characters 12. Social networking sites- such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are online. 政治. 大 family, coworkers, and others communities where people can interact with friends,. 立. ‧ 國. 學. with common interests. They provide social marketers with timely and personal ways to deliver products and personal communications.. ‧. sit. y. Nat. 13. Virtual worlds- are online environments providing users and opportunity to create a. n. a. er. io. virtual persona, or avatar, and then interact with other avatars in an online virtual environment (pp. 589-590).l. Ch. engchi. i Un. v. Though there are numerous communication channels for social marketers, Lee and Kitler (2016) propose eight different factors for considering which outlets to chose. The first is the campaigns objectives and goals, because different social media channels are suited for different targets. The second factor is determining the desired reach and frequency. In this case, reach means “a measure of the percentage of people in the target audience who are exposed to the ad campaign during a given period of time” and frequency is the “ measure of how many times the average person in the target audience is exposed to the message (pp. 601).” The third factor is. 32.