Interpreters facilitate necessary cross-cultural communication in today’s society by
converting one language into another, or in the case of sign-language interpreters, between spoken communication and sign language. They excel in at least two languages and render language conversion for the participants in the subjects discussed (Directorate-General of Budget,
Accounting, and Statistics, 1992). Interpreters are required to pay attention carefully, understand what is communicated in both languages, and express thoughts and ideas clearly and completely.
Strong research and analytical skills, mental dexterity, and an exceptional memory also are
important characteristics of a successful interpreter. Interpreters may not completely specialize in a particular field or industry, quite on the contrary, they may focus on more than one area of expertise and is capable of performing tasks in different interpreting mode (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007).
The act of interpreting involves three stages: comprehension, conversion and delivery (Ginori & Scimone, 1995). Interpreting requires complete understanding of the source language and public speaking skills in the target language in order to render accurate, fluent, comprehensible target language output. The interpretation must remain faithful to the original at all times in terms of register, tone, intent, and style. No amount of Information should be arbitrarily added or omitted (Dubslaff & Martinsen, 2005).
Interpreting performances are influenced by a number of factors, including “ knowledge of the language, of the participant matter, of the content, of the institutional culture as well as the speaker’s own culture, and also by the speaker’s speech coherence and presentational style” (Hale, 2004)
The main difference between translators and interpreters is that interpreters physically present themselves to facilitate communication between individuals who cannot understand each other’s languages, on the contrary, translators often do not come into contact with their costumers while conducting their assignments (Seleskovitch, 1978). Another important distinction between the tasks performed by translators and interpreters is different time demand. Translators have time to reflect and craft their final output, whereas interpreters must instantaneously arrive at a target language equivalent, while receiving further input (González, Vasquez & Mikkleson, 1991). The source-language text of interpreting is presented only once, with little chance for correction and revision afterwards (Pochhacker, 2004).
2.4.1 Job Description
Translating words is only one part of the job description for interpreters. Professional interpreters relay concepts between languages, accurately convey body languages, expressions, emotions and ideas. A thorough understanding on the subject matter in which they work is necessary in order to accurately convert information from one language, (source language) into another (target language). In addition, they must be sensitive to the cultures associated with their languages of expertise. The job does not ask for a “walking dictionary" (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007).
Interpreting tasks require interpreters to “study the origin, development and structure of languages, and interpret from one language into another,… in particular at conferences, meetings and similar occasions, and ensuring that the correct meaning and, as far as possible, the spirit of the original are transmitted. (ILO, 2004) “
Australian Bureau of Statistics, Statistics New Zealand, and the Australian Government Department of Employment and Workplace Relations employ Australian and New Zealand Standard
Classification of Occupations (ANZSCO) define interpreting as a job with interpreters providing simultaneous and consecutive verbal renditions of speeches into another language in the appropriate
register and style in a range of settings such as courts, hospitals, schools, workplaces and conferences (Australian Bureau of Statistics & Statistics New Zealand, 2006).
The Standard Occupational Classification System of the Republic of China describe Interpreters’ job content as providing consecutive interpretation in settings such as small conferences, debates, business meetings and guided tours; as for simultaneous interpreting, interpreters convey messages simultaneously and with precision in international meetings and conferences; furthermore, interpreters may also convert a written text into the target
language.” (Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting, and Statistics, 1992) 2.4.2 Interpreting as a Profession
Major occupational classification standards around the world classify interpreters under the category of profession alongside lawyers and doctors.
According to International Standard Classification of Occupations 08 (ISCO-08), occupational groups assigned to the Professional occupations are listed under “ Major Group 2:
Professionals”. There are in total of six sub-groups under this major group. The sixth sub-group Legal, social and cultural professionals is further divided into five minor groups in which Authors, journalists and linguists falls under the fourth. Under this minor group lists code 2643 for the unit group Translators, interpreters and other linguists (ILO, 2004).
Interpreters are classified under the same unit group 2643 with linguists, not directly included in the linguist occupation; further more, they are separated from other language teachers (2353). Although all three professional occupations require a certain level of language skills and their job contents are highly involved in the use of language, the classification of ISCO-08 clearly shows that there are basic differences in between these three professions. Having the language feature in common does not mean a linguist or a language teacher can perform professional interpreting tasks and vice versa .
Bureau of Labor Statistics published the “Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09
Edition”, including interpreters in the major group of Media and communications-related
occupations in the category of Professional and Related Occupations out of fourteen major groups listed. There are in total eight sub-major groups in Media and communications-related occupations and the third reads interpreters and translators.
ANZSCO classify interpreters under unit group 272412 with translators and historians in the same “Social Professionals” group 2724. Social Professionals research and study human behavior, society and institutions from current and historical perspectives, verbally render spoken statements, and transcribe text and recorded spoken material from one language into another (ANZCSCO).
Most of the other occupations that fall in this unit group require a level of skill commensurate with a bachelor’s degree or higher qualification.
The Standard Occupational Classification System in the Republic of China is a classification scheme which seeks to depict the current labor market in Taiwan. The system comprises ten major groups, 37 sub-major groups, 114 minor groups and 394 unit groups. Interpreters and translators falls into the minor group 2604 along with philologists, which is in turn placed under the sub-major group “Social Science and Related Professionals 26 & 260”, major group “Professionals 2”.
Noteworthy is that court interpreters and escort interpreters are classified separately from conference interpreters, each having different job descriptions. Although all these interpreters require core-interpreting proficiency, they must deal with different knowledge domain and work in different kind of settings. Escort interpreters do not have the training or knowledge to perform court interpreting tasks and court interpreters may be at a lost when dealing with medical settings.
2.4.3 Modes of Interpretation
There are two modes of interpretation: simultaneous and consecutive. All interpreting tasks are conducted by using either one of the modes (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007).
Simultaneous Interpretation
In the simultaneous mode the interpreter continues to receive and process new information while rendering, and monitoring the target language for equivalence all at the same time.
Interpreters working in simultaneous mode allow lag time between themselves and the speaker.
That is, the interpreters wait until the speakers have begun to develop their points before beginning to interpret. By allowing lag time, the interpreters ensure that they are interpreting meaning, not just individual lexical items. “Even memorizing a half dozen words would distract the interpreter, whose attention is already divided between listening to his own words, and those of the speaker. His memory does not store the words of the sentence delivered by the speaker, but only the meaning those words convey (Seleskovitch, 1978).”
Simultaneous interpretation is most frequently used at international conferences, seminars, meetings and sometimes in courts, which goes on for more than a couple of hours and involves a big group of audience (AIIC).
Consecutive Interpretation
In contrast to simultaneous interpretation’s immediacy, consecutive interpretation begins only after the speakers have finished a paragraph or at least a few sentences. Interpreters often take notes while listening to the speakers, not depending entirely on their short-term memory in case the speakers speak for a relatively long period or packs intensive information into a tightly knitted paragraph (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007). Consecutive interpreting does not require interpreters to split their attention into receiving the message, process information and monitoring their output at the same time, as is required in simultaneous. The interpreters have a better understanding of the source text when working consecutively. Interpreters have the advantage of knowing the line of the argument before they start interpreting. However, they also face the difficulty of dealing with a longer text. If the message is too heavily packed with information or lasts too long, interpreters may be in a greater danger of omitting information or loosing track of the logic presented by the
speakers (Seleskovitch, 1978).
This form of interpretation is mostly used in person-to-person or person–to-small group communication, during which the interpreter who often works alone is positioned near both parties.
2.4.4 Freelance and In-house Interpreters
Interpreters, regardless of their job content, can generally be grouped into two categories, freelance and in-house interpreters. According to Swartz (1999), freelance interpreters are
professional interpreters who are not employed by an agency, company, or corporation on a full- or part-time basis, but rather working for one or many such entities on a contractual terms when requested case by case. Their schedules are often erratic with extensive periods of no work
interspersed with periods requiring long, irregular hours. In addition, freelancers must manage their own finances, and payment for their services may not always be prompt. Freelancing, however, offers variety and flexibility, and allows many workers to choose which job to accept or decline (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007).
In-house interpreters (staff interpreters), in contrast, are employed by a particular agency, company, or corporation on a full- or part-time basis. These interpreters may also be referred to as standard wage earner interpreters (Swartz, 1999). In-house interpreters have a steady job and do not have to worry about the job flow. Having only one employer, the interpreters become a part of the integrated group and consequently involve in the organization’s activities (AIIC, 2007). Life as a staff interpreter is more predictable. Since they work solely for one company, the issues and topics of the interpreting task would not vary greatly or cross industrial sectors like the ones freelance interpreters face.
Conference Interpreters
Conference interpreters are qualified specialists in bilingual or multilingual communication.
They make communication possible between delegates of different linguistic communities at conferences, meetings, negotiations or visits, where more than one working language is used
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007). These experts comprehend the concepts of the speaker’s message and convey them orally in another language, either in consecutive, simultaneous or whispering (AIIC, 1994).
To successfully fulfill the task at hand, a wide general knowledge and quick adaptation to certain domain knowledge are asked of conference interpreters in order to deal with all matters under discussion. Moreover, conference interpreters are bound to respect the code of professional ethics.
In terms of knowledge, conference interpreters must be competence in foreign languages used, able to produce quality native language rendition, possess firm knowledge base and an understanding of current affairs. Most conference interpreters possess the ability to analyze and construe facts, speedy reaction, the ability to adapt, powers of concentration, above average
physical, nervous staying power, a pleasant voice and good public speaking skills, a high degree of intellectual curiosity, tact and diplomacy, poise, and presentation (Weber, 1984; Seleskovitch, 1978;
AIIC, 2004).
Conference interpreters must also be driven to fulfill their duties regardless of how unexpected or difficult an interpreting assignment can be, able to adjust and cooperate, if not compromise, with demands of the assignments. However, not much consensus has been formed regarding whether interpreters would benefit from an extroverted personality (Shih, 2004) .
Like the other young professions, conference interpreters encounter many challenges in the process of professionalization. The next section first gives an overview as to the problems arises duing professionalization and then goes into the details interpreters face at the present stage.
The next section gives a few examples as to the approaches adopted in some interpreting markets to ensure quality performance.
2.5 Interpreter Accreditation and Quality Regulating Mechanisms