CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Vocabulary Learning
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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter first reviews theories and studies associated with vocabulary learning. Then, the impacts and implementations of mobile-assisted language learning on vocabulary learning are discussed.
Lastly, previous studies on digital game -based vocabulary learning are addressed.
2.1 Vocabulary Learning
2.1.1 Importance of Vocabulary Le arning
A multitude of studies indicated that the development of vocabulary size is significantl y related to learners‘ overall language proficiency (Wilkins, 1972; Laufer & Sim, 1985; Laufer, 1992; Harmon, 1998; Read, 2000; Pikulski & Templeton, 2004; Jensen, 2005). Among previous studies on vocabulary learning, Read (2000) claimed that vocabulary learning is extremely important when picking up a foreign language since vocabulary lays the foundation for general comprehension. Similarly, Ruddel and Shearer (2002) also indicated that learners equipped with a wide vocabulary size, compared with those having limited vocabulary size, are more likely to be proficient learners. That is, learners can hardly accomplish successful learning if the y encounter many unfamiliar words.
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Furthermore, Nation (2001) pointed out that ―successful learners
customaril y internalize the use of language by committing a m yriad of vocabularies to their long -term memory.‖ Namely, not only do language learners aspirin g to be proficient need a large vocabulary size, but they also ought to be competent to employ those words adequatel y (Pikulski &
Templeton, 2004).
Undoubtedly, vocabulary size has long been regarded as one of the most significant factors discerning learn ers‘ language proficiency.
Goulden, Nation, and Read (1990) pointed out that a five -year-old native child should know approximately 4,000 to 5,000 word families; college graduates ought to be familiar with around 20,000 word families. In addition, Francis and Kucera (1982) pointed out that being familiar with roughl y 2,000 word families enables one to understand almost 8 0 percent coverage of the texts , and Laufer (1992) concluded that 3,000 word families, or 5,000 lexical entities, are the basic requirement for general comprehension. Moreover, Nation and Waring (1997) suggested that EFL learners should know at least 3,000 high -frequency words. Thus, should learners fail to cross the threshold of being familiar with 3,000 word families or 3,000 high -frequency words, their learning processes or
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general comprehension may be heavily impeded.
With regard to the situation in Taiwan, it is expected that Taiwanese senior high school graduates should be familiar with approximatel y 3,850 to 4,320 words (Huang, 1997); however, it has long been suggested that mastering 7,000 words would be sufficient for students to successfull y cope with the Joint College Entrance Examination. Thus, before attending colleges, Taiwanese students are anticipated to be familiar with enough high-frequency words, which exceed the threshold of general comprehension as previous studies (Francis & Kucera, 1982; Laufer, 1992; Nation & Waring, 1997) ha ve suggested.
Nevertheless , learning vocabula ry in the setting of EFL environments, to some ext ent, would be fairly challenging, for learners rarely have the opportunities to practice the language they are picking up.
As a result, EFL learners tend to forget words easily, and educators frequentl y meet the challenges of how to effectivel y make learne rs able to retain the words they have learned (Nation, 2001; Sökmen, 1997).
Hence, developing appropriate approaches to effectivel y enlargin g learners‘ vocabulary size has long been a pivotal issue. Harmon (1998) claimed that students‘ vocabulary size can be effectively facilitated
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through instructors‘ explicit instruction , and, Johnson (2001) also
proposed guidelines suggesting that teachers should help learners be
―related in contexts naturally‖ and ―exposed to the words they are learning repeatedly‖ so that they can actually acquire and retain those
words.
2.1.2 Defining Vocabulary Acquisition
Vocabulary is a set of words with which people are familiar in a language. Carter (1987) gave his definition of vocabulary in Vocabulary:
Applied linguistic perspectives, which denoted that vocabulary—consisted of
three parts: forms, sounds, and meanings—is regarded as the ―minimal meaningful unit‖ in a sentence. In order to successfully acquire words,
one should know the spoken and written form of words and also has to know how to activel y and properl y employ the acquired words. Similarly, for the purpose of acquiring a new word, Ellis (1995) claimed that learners should first recognize it as a word, and then enter it into their mental lexicon. Afterwards, lea rners must learn the syntactic property, semantic property, and referential propert y of the word. That is, vocabulary acquisition is about mastering and adequatel y employing the acquired words when a proper situation arises.
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In addition to Carter‘s (1987) and Ellis‘s (1995) viewpoints, Nation
(2001) also proposed ni ne factors for acquiring a word , including spoken forms, written forms, word parts, form s and meanings, concepts and references, association s, grammatical function s, collocations, and constraints on use of a word. Moreover, Nation claimed that there are three processes in terms of vocabulary acquisition: noticing process, retrieval process, and generative use process. Namely, learners would
first notice certain words through reading, listening, or speaking. Then, the retrieval process is expected to strengthen learners‘ memory of the
words. Afterwards, learners may re -use those words they have learned in the same or dissimilar contexts.
2.1.3 Defining Vocabulary Retention
The importance of vocabulary retention has long been confirmed by previous studies (Pimsleur, 1967; Sousa, 2001; Huang, 2003; Sprenger.
2005). Pimsleur (1967) proposed graduated interval recall hypothesis,
which denotes that those acquired words would inev itabl y fade from learners‘ memory if there are without reviewing processes. Namely, never
could a language learner achieve satisfactory learning performance when words fade from their memory. Adopting Pimsleur ‘s (1967) hypothesis,
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Huang (2003) conducted an empirical study and pointed out that vocabulary retention indeed decrea ses over a given period of time , and the precipitation tends to be most observable between an immediate vocabulary test and a one-week delayed test. Furthermore, J ensen (2005)
claimed that examining learners‘ retention abilit y is the most effective means of evaluating learners‘ vocabulary learning performance. In
addition, Sousa (2001) pointed out that when learners learn in a sensible, meaningful way, the learned information would effectively be retained in their memory bank. That is, a successful instructor should associate vocabulary with authentic real -life contexts in order to facilitate students‘
vocabulary retention , since students‘ competence to store and recall what they have learned exerts considerable influence on their learning performance.
Moreover, repetition strategies seem to serve as a pivotal means in terms of facilitating learners‘ vocabulary retention. Sprenger (2005)
claimed that repetition strategies can effectivel y strengthen the networks of neurons, thus enabling learners to form long -term memories. Namely, the more learners review certain words, the higher possibilities those words stay in learners‘ long-term memories. Therefore, a successful
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educator or a helpful learning instrument should help learners with vocabulary retention by periodicall y reviewing learned vocabulary.
However, it has long been argued by Liang (1996) that repetition strategies may make learners passive, or even indifferent, to their learning.
2.1.4 Empirical Studies on Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Previous studies have confirmed that vocabulary learning strategies can effectively facilitate learners‘ vocabulary learning (Nation, 1990;
Stoffer, 1995; Schmitt, 1997). However, the framework of vocabulary learning strategies is still in an embryonic state (Schmitt, 1997).
Monheimer (2004) summarized that there are at least three pivotal major approaches depicting the distinc tive processes of vocabulary learning: (1) Bottom -up theory, (2) Top -down theory, and (3) Interactive theory. The bottom -up theory signifies that learners construct the meanings from the texts —letters, words, phrases, or sentences. The top-down theory, on the other hand, denotes that vocabulary learning
actuall y starts with higher-level mental stage. The interactive theory mainly focuses on the cyclical process between learner ‘s mental
activities and the texts. In addition, Stoffer (1995) employed statistic al
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factor analysis and proposed nine frequently-used vocabulary learning strategies: (1) strategies concerning authentic language use; (2) strategies concerning creative activities; (3) strategies employed to promote motivation; (4) strategies employed to create mental linkages; (5) memory strategies; (6) visual or auditory strategies; (7) strategies involving physical action; (8) strategies utilized to overcome anxiety; (9) strategies utilized to organize words. Moreover, Schmitt (1997) proposed vocabulary learning strategies consisted of five categories, including the determination strategy, social strategy, memory strategy, cognitive strategy, and meta -cognitive strategy. Firstly, determination strategies denote that learners employ their prior knowledge, the contextual clues, or the reference to construct the meanings of words. Secondly, social strategies are employed to facilitate learning through the interaction with others. Thirdly, memory strategies can help learners relate what they are
learning to t heir prior knowledge. Fourthly, cognitive strategies are expected to assist learners in ―manipulating and transforming the entities in the target language.‖ Lastly, meta -cognitive strategies focus on the
conscious overview of the learning process. The comp lete taxonomy of the vocabulary learning strategies proposed by Schmitt is presented in
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Table 2.1 Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (Schmitt, 1997)
Discovery Strategies DET
Analyze part of speech Analyze part of speech Check for L1 cognate Analyze any available
pictures or gestures Guess from textual context Bilingual dictionary
Monolingual dictionary Word lists Flash cards
SOC
Ask teacher for an L1 translation
Ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of new word SOC Study and practice
meaning in a group
Image word's meaning Connect word to a personal experience Associate the word with
its coordinates
Connect the word to its
synonyms and antonyms Use Semantic maps Use 'scales' for gradable
adjectives Peg Method Loci Method
Group words together to study them
Group words together
spatially on a page Use new word in sentences Group words together
within a storyline
Study the spelling of a
word Study the sound of a word
Say new word aloud
when studying Image word form Underline initial letter of the word
Configuration Use Keyword Method Affixes and Roots (remembering) Part of Speech
(remembering)
Paraphrase the words
meaning Use cognates in study
Learn the words of an idiom together
Use Physical action
when learning a word Use semantic feature grids
COG
Verbal repetition Written Repetition Word Lists
Flash Cards Take notes in class Use the vocabulary section in your textbook Listen to tape of word
lists
Put English labels on
physical objects Keep a vocabulary notebook
MET
Use English-language media
Testing oneself with
word tests Use spaced word practice Skip or pass new word Continue to study word
over time
DET indicates determination strategy; SOC indicates social strategy;
MEM indicates memory strategy; COG indicates cognitive strategy; MET indicates meta-cognitive strategy.
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vocabulary learning strategies, several empirical stud ies have been conducted in the past decade (Wu, 2002; Wu, 2003; Liao, 2004; Chen &Yeh, 2004; Chen & Andrew, 2009; Li et al., 2010). Table 2.2 represents summary of the empirical studies on Taiwanese young adult EFL learners‘
use of vocabulary learning str ategies.
Table 2.2 Summary of Empirical Studies on Taiwanese Young Adult EFL Learners’ Use of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Researc
69% of the participants used mental lexicon to memorize the words;
62% of the subjects actually applied the vocabularies to dail y conversations;
74% of the participants used repetition strategy to memorize words;
The participants, when identified with 3 levels of English proficiency, showed no differences in terms of the use of vocabulary acquisition strategies
Most of the subjects utilized repetition strategies to perform vocabulary learning
Participants believed that repetition strategies were the most instrumental
Participants using sound analysis to remember words tended to have better English proficiency
The ranking of most-used vocabulary discovery strategies was: (1) Use bilingual dictionary; (2) Ask teacher for an L1
translation; (3) Guess from textual context;
and (4) Ask classmates for meaning.
The ranking of most-used vocabulary
consolidating strategies was: (1) Take notes in class; (2) Use verbal repetition; (3) Study
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English-language media; (5) Say new words aloud when studying; and (6) Study the spelling of the word.
The most-used strategies were: (1) Use electronic bilingual dictionary; (2) Use written repetition; (3) Study the sound of the word; and (4) Use verbal repetition.
The least-used strategies were: (1) Underline the initial letter of the word; (2) Image the word form; (3) Use physical objects; (4) Use the new word with native speakers; and (5) Use semantic maps.
There were significant differences between female and male participants regarding the use of vocabulary learning strategies.
Chen
Taiwanese college students favored the translation strategies which would be conducive to the understanding of words
Meta-cognitive strategies, which assist them in the evaluation of learning process.
Li et al.
(2010)
170 college students
The ranking of the most-used vocabulary learning strategies was: (1) repetition strategy; (2) social strategy; (3) affective strategy; (4) cognitive strategy; (5) memory strategy; and (6) meta-cognitive strategy.
It is confirmed from the empirical studies on Taiwanese young adult EFL learners‘ use of vocabulary learning strategies (Wu, 2002; Wu, 2003;
Liao, 2004; Chen & Yeh, 2004; Li et al., 2010) that repetition strategy is still favored by Taiwanese EFL learners.
In addition, t o promote vocabulary learning performance, vocabulary games have been frequently employed to augment students‘
interests in reviewing words they have learned (Sökm en, 1997; You et al., 2000; Huyen & Nga, 2003). The appealing attributes of vocabulary games
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enable learners to retain vocabulary effortlessly. Allen (1983) claimed that vocabulary games, such as crossword puzzles, can provide students with more opportunit ies to employ and practice vocabular y they have picked up. Similarly, Gairns and Redman (1986) exerted several vocabulary practices as warm -up or end-of-class activities and confirmed that vocabulary games, indeed, help ed students memorize the words.
Furthermore, Sökmen (1997) indicated that competitive vocabulary games can be used in class to ―recycle vocabularies ,‖ thus facilitating
vocabulary learning performance. Similarly, You et al. (2000) also
employed vocabulary games to assist students in reviewing the words they had learned in order to facilitate learners‘ vocabulary retention.
Moreover, Huyen and Nga (2003) demonstrated that vocabulary games are effective learning tools and can be employed for reviewing what have been taught.
2.1.5 Conclusion
In the domain of language learning, the importance of vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention has long been confirmed (Pimsleur, 1967; Wilkins, 1972; Laufer & Sim, 1985; Laufer, 1992; Harmon, 1998;
Read, 2000; Nation, 2001; Johnson, 2001; Huang, 2003; Pikulski &
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Templeton, 2004; Jensen, 2005; Dondi & Moretti, 2007). However, vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention consistently exert as an obstacle to overcome since EFL learners rarely have the opportunities to practice the language they are picking up (Sokmen, 1997; Schmitt, 2000;
Nation, 2001). Therefore, EFL learners tend to forget words easily, while EFL educators frequentl y meet the challenges of how to effectively make learners able to retain the acquired words (Nation, 2001; Sökmen, 1997).
Developing effective approaches to enlarging learners‘ vocabulary size has thus been a critical issue in language learning field (Harmon, 1998;
Johnson, 2001).
Among several vocabulary learning strategies proposed by previous
studies (Monheimer, 2004; Stoffer, 1995; Schmitt, 1997), empirical studies on Taiwanese EFL learners‘ use of vocabulary learning strategies
have confirmed that repetition strategy is still t he most-used strategy of Taiwanese EFL learners (Wu, 2002; Wu, 2003; Liao, 2004; Chen & Yeh, 2004; Li et al., 2010). However, Liang‘s study (1996) argued that repetition strategy may make learners passive, or even indifferent, to their learning. Vocabulary games, as a promising approach, are considered as a potential learning tool (Allen, 1983; Sökmen, 1997;
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Huyen & Nga, 2003), aiming to augment learners‘ interests and further
facilitate their vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention (Gairns
& Redman, 1986; Sökmen, 1997; You et al., 2000; Huyen & Nga, 2003).
Thus, this study aims to assess whether mobile vocabulary learning APP with game-related functions (MVLA-GF) can improve the tedious, less favored traditional vocabulary learning approach es and further exert
positive influence on vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary retention, and learners‘ perceptions.