遊戲式行動英語字彙學習APP之學習認知與成效評估研究：以臺灣 EFL 學習者為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學圖書資訊與檔案學研究所碩士論文 Master’s Thesis Graduate Institute of Library, Information and Archival Studies National Chengchi University. ‧ 國. 學. 遊戲式行動英語字彙學習 APP 政治大之學習認知與成效評估研究：立以臺灣 EFL 學習者為例 ‧. Assessing the Effects of Mobile Vocabulary Learning. sit. y. Nat. APP with Game-Related Functions on Learners’. er. io. Learning Perceptions and Performance: A Case. a. n. v i Study ofl Taiwanese EFL Learners n C hengchi U. 指導教授：陳志銘博士 Advisor: Dr. Chih-Ming Chen 研究生：黃泓彬 Graduate: Hong-Bin Huang 中華民國一零四年二月 February, 2015.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(3) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v.

(4) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. “Sometimes it's worth lingering on the journey for a while before getting to the destination.” ― Richelle Mead.. 治政 That's why I'm here, lingering. 大立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. Dedicated to HJ, ORG, FAM, WP, YL, RF, 4J, YS, KS, YW, TD, KG;. n. er. io. al. sit. y. Nat. and to any who hasn't walked away. Ch. engchi. i n U. Before winter ends, 2015. v.

(5) Abstract Many previous studies confirmed that vocabulary learning plays a key role in the processes of foreign language learning, and repetition strategy is still the most widely-used strategy for vocabulary learning. However, it has long been argued that repetition strategy may make learners passive, or even indifferent, to their learning. With the rapid development of information and communication technology (ICT), mobile game-based learning (MGBL) has been considered as a promising scheme for assisting learners in successfully acquiring and retaining knowledge. Thus, this study. 政治大. assesses the effects of utilizing PHONE Words, which is a novel mobile vocabulary. 立. learning APP with game-related functions (MVLA-GF), as a learning tool on learners‘. ‧ 國. 學. perceptions and learning performance.. ‧. A mixed methodology that combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. sit. y. Nat. including a pretest, an immediate posttest, a delayed posttest, a questionnaire survey, a. io. er. usage analysis of MVLA-GF, and a semi-structured interview was adopted in this study. In the 4-week experimental treatment, twenty undergraduate students from. n. al. College of Liberal Arts of. v i n C h Chengchi University National engchi U. were recruited as the. research subjects and were randomly assigned into the experimental group using MVLA-GF and the control group using MVLA-NGF. Analytical results show that the mean vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention of experimental group using MVLA-GF were both significantly higher than those of control group using MVLA-NGF. Results of the questionnaire confirmed that, in the facilitation of English vocabulary learning, MVLA-GF contributes to higher effectiveness and satisfaction than MVLA-NGF does. Results of Pearson correlation analysis show that learners‘ involvements and dependence on gamification-related functions were positively. correlated. with. their. vocabulary i. learning. performance.. Five.

(6) aspects—interface design, gamification design, content design, health concerns, and costs—were proposed as the decisive factors influencing learners‘ perceptions toward using MVLA-GF for supporting English vocabulary learning. In conclusion, this study confirmed that MVLA-GF, with its edutainment elements and game attributes, is an appealing, conducive learning tool for augmenting learners‘ vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention, and learners generate positive perceptions toward using MVLA-GF as a vocabulary learning tool. That is, MVLA-GF can be regarded as a promising, viable learning tool for improving. 政治大 nor attractive. Finally, this立 study suggested that educators and learners can apply traditional vocabulary learning approaches, which were considered neither effective. ‧ 國. 學. MVLA-GF as a learning tool for English vocabulary learning—with potential issues, such as criteria for educational game evaluation, being attentively taken into account.. ‧. Educational game developers, on the other hand, should leverage to achieve a balance. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. between ―education Purpose‖ and ―entertainment effect‖ of a given educational game.. Ch. engchi. ii. i n U. v.

(7) 摘要在英語為外語的學習中，英語字彙的習得對於英文能力的提昇扮演極其關鍵的角色，重複背誦法為傳統最常被採用的字彙學習方法。然而，過去的研究已證實此一方法容易造成學習者僅止於被動學習。近年來隨著資訊與通訊科技(ICT) 的蓬勃發展，遊戲式行動學習已被證實能有效協助學習者習得並保留知識。因此，本研究探討一款新開發的行動英語字彙學習 APP，在有無遊戲相關功能支援下，對於英語字彙學習之學習認知以及學習成效的影響。本研究採用混合研究法，使用包括前測、立即後測、延宕後測、問卷、使用. 政治大. 者行為分析、半結構式訪談等量化及質化研究工具進行研究。實驗對象為二十名. 立. 國立政治大學文學院大學部學生，以等組方式隨機分派為採用具遊戲相關功能之. ‧ 國. 學. 行動英語字彙學習 APP 的實驗組，以及採用不具遊戲相關功能之行動英語字彙學習 APP 的控制組，並以智慧型手機進行為期四週之自主學習活動。結果顯示，採. ‧. 用具遊戲相關功能之行動英語字彙學習 APP 的實驗組學習者，其平均字彙習得、. y. Nat. sit. 字彙保留均顯著優於採用不具遊戲相關功能之行動英語字彙學習 APP 的控制組. n. al. er. io. 學習者；採用具遊戲相關功能行動之英語字彙學習 APP 的實驗組學習者在問卷調. i n U. v. 查之學習有效性以及滿意度上優於控制組學習者；採用具遊戲相關功能之行動英. Ch. engchi. 語字彙學習 APP 的實驗組學習者，字彙學習成效與其學習參與程度以及遊戲相關功能使用次數上呈現顯著的正相關；在半結構式訪談中，實驗組學習者提出影響其是否採用具遊戲相關功能之行動英語字彙學習 APP 輔助英語字彙學習意願的五大因素，包括介面設計、遊戲設計、內容設計、健康擔憂以及花費。綜上所述，本研究證實具遊戲相關功能之行動英語字彙學習 APP 具有寓教於樂的特性，為一具備吸引力、有效性之學習輔助工具，不僅能有效協助學習者習得以及保留字彙，亦促使學習者對此種學習方式抱持著正面態度。具遊戲相關功能之行動英語字彙學習 APP 的確可改善傳統英語字彙學習方式之諸多侷限，並且. iii.

(8) 協助學習者有效達成學習目標。最後，本研究建議教師以及學習者可以使用具遊戲相關功能之行動英語字彙學習 APP 輔助教學與學習，唯特定潛在問題，例如遊戲選擇基準以及成效評估方式，仍須悉心思量；而教育遊戲開發者亦須在教育遊戲之教育目的以及娛樂功能中，取得良好的平衡。. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. iv. i n U. v.

(9) CONTENTS Abstract ……………...............……………………….…...…………….. Abstract in Chinese …..………………………………….……….….….. Contents………………………………………………….….……….….. List of Figures…………………………………………………..……….. List of Tables………………………………………………….…….….... i iii v vii viii. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ……………………….................…..... 1.1 Background and Motivation………………………............…. 1 4. 1.2 Purpose of the Study ....…………………………….….......... 8 1.3 Research Questions …..…….……………………..........…… 9 1.4 Limitations of the Study ……………………….…..........….. 10 1.5 Definition of Terms…………………………..……..........….. 11. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW………...….........................….... 2.1 Vocabulary Learning ………………..………...….……......... 2.2 Mobile-Assisted Language Learning ……..……….........…... 2.3 Digital Game-Based Learning …………......…….……......…. Nat. y. 13 13 26 38. 3.1 Research Design……...……………..…..…..……….……… 3.2 Research Architecture..…………..…......………..……...….. 3.3 Research Participants……...…………..…..…………..….… 3.4 Research Instruments..…………..…..………..........…….…. 3.5 Data Analysis Schemes…………..…..……….….....….…… 3.6 Research Procedures …...………..…..………..…...….…….. 55 59 61 62 72 75. n. al. er. sit. 55. io. CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY …………………......…. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS…………………....……… 78 4.1 Research Participants ……...………..…..…………….….. 78 4.2 Comparisons of Vocabulary Learning Performance between Two Groups…….. ..…..….…..…..…....…. ……… 4.3 Results of Questionnaire Survey……..…..…….....….……... 4.4 Correlations between Usage Behaviors of MVLA-GF and learning Performance in the Experimental Group ..........…. 4.5 Results of Semi-Structured Interview.…………….…........… 4.6 Discussion …………..…..…………….………...………...… v. 80 84 87 94 113.

(10) CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK…...….…...…… 121 5.1 Conclusion ………..…..…………….……………........……. 121 5.2 Implications and Suggestions ………….…….........………... 125 5.3 Future Research Directions ………….……….........……..… 128 References ………………….....……………………………...………… 133 Appendices .....………………………………………………...……..…. 141 Appendix A. Vocabulary Pretest ………………………... ...…… 141 Appendix B. Vocabulary Posttest ……………..……………… 144 Appendix C. Delayed Vocabulary Posttest .......………………… 147 Appendix D. Questionnaire ……………... ...………….……..… 151 Appendix E. Questionnaire (Chinese Version)………….........…. 154 Appendix F. Semi-structured interview ………….…........…....... 156 Appendix G. Semi-structured interview (Chinese Version) ......... 157. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. vi. i n U. v.

(11) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies ...............................… 21 Table 2.2 Summary of Empirical Studies on Taiwanese Young Adult EFL Learners‘ Use of Vocabulary Learning Strategies ………...….. 22 Table 2.3 Comparisons between E-learning and M-Learning……………….... 29 Table 2.4 Summary of Empirical Studies on Mobile-Assisted Vocabulary Learning…………………………………………….…………….… 34 Table 2.5 Classification of English Vocabulary Learning Games………...... 39 Table 2.6 Dimensions of Game Attributes ………………………….…… 42 Table 2.7 Learning Objectives and Corresponding Appropriate Games …...… 42 Table 2.8 Summary of Previous Empirical Studies on DGBL………….….…. 49. 政治大. Table 4.1 Participants of the experimental group and control group …….…… 79. 立. Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of Vocabulary Tests in 3 Learning Stages ….... 81. ‧ 國. 學. Table 4.3 Results of Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test of 3 Vocabulary Tests between Two Groups ……………………………………………..… 81 Table 4.4 Descriptive Statistics of Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention .…... 82. ‧. Table 4.5 Results of Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test of Vocabulary Acquisition. and Retention between Two Groups ……………………………..…. 83. y. Nat. sit. Table 4.6 Reliability Analysis of Questionnaire ………………………….…… 85. n. al. er. io. Table 4.7 Descriptive Statistics of Questionnaire Assessment ……………..… 86. i n U. v. Table 4.8 Results of Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test of Questionnaire Assessment between TwoGroups ……………………………..….… 86. Ch. engchi. Table 4.9 Descriptive Statistics of Usage Behaviors of MVLA-GF in the Experimental Group …………………………………………….….. 88 Table 4.10 Results of Pearson Correlation among Usage Behaviors of MVLA -GF and Learning Performance in the Experimental Group …….... 90 Table 4.11 Descriptive Statistics of Usage Behaviors in the Control Group ...... 91 Table 4.12 Results of Pearson Correlation among Usage Behaviors of MVLA and Learning Performance in the Control Group ............................. 92 Table 4.13 Results of Participants‘ Using Priority among the Six Major Functions Provided by the Assigned MVLA-GF …………………. 98. vii.

(12) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Input-Process-Outcome Game Model………………..….……….... 41 Figure 2.2 Word Cloud of Game Attributes Frequency..…………..……..….... 44 Figure 3.1 Research Architecture………………………………………….….. 59 Figure 3.2 Word List and Customized Word List of PHONE Words…....…..... 64 Figure 3.3 Pre-Established Learning Path of PHONE Words……....…...……. 65 Figure 3.4 Traditional Assessment of PHONE Words………………..…....….. 65 Figure 3.5 Gamified Assessment of PHONE Words ……………….....…..….. 66 Figure 3.6 Ranking among Friends of PHONE Words…………….….........… 68 Figure 3.7 Procedures of the Present Study…..……………….....……...…..... 75. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. viii. i n U. v.

(13) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION It is unanimously acknowledged that English has saliently been regarded as the dominant language for decades; the importance of this ―global language‖ never fails to be recognized. For EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners, vocabulary size is an essential factor which significantly influences the process and performance of English-language. 政治大. leaning. Laufer and Sim (1985) emphasized that ―the most pressing need. 立. of foreign language learners is vocabulary.‖ Wilkins (1972) also claimed. ‧ 國. 學. that ―without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary. ‧. nothing at all can be conveyed.‖ The vocabulary size, accordingly, is. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. regarded as the foundation in the process of language learning. In. n. addition, Read (2000) confirmed that vocabulary lays the foundation for. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. general language comprehension. Laufer (1992) further suggested tha t, for the purpose of achieving reading comprehension, language learners should be familiar wi th at least 3,000 word families , and Nation (2001) claimed that a successful language learner should master nearly ―98 percent of the running words in the texts.‖ To put it differently, vocabulary appears to be a petty role but actually turns out to be the most significant factor for language production. Thus, never should we 1.

(14) underestimate the role vocabulary plays in the process of foreign language learning.. The. importance. of. vocabulary. acquisition. has. been. highly. confirmed in many previous studies (Wilkins, 1972; Laufer&Sim, 1985; Laufer, 1992; Read, 2000; Nation, 2001; Pikulski& Templeton, 2004); however, for EFL learners, vocabulary acquisition consistently exerts as. 政治大. an obstacle to overcome. Generally speaking, EFL learners have. 立. difficulty in learning vocabularies due to different reasons. Nation (1990). ‧ 國. 學. claimed that the dissimilar word structures between Chinese characters. ‧. and English characters may possibly impede EFL learners‘ vocabulary. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. learning. Moreover, the ambiguity in language use may bring about. n. confusion to EFL learners as well. Schmitt (2000) concluded that. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. meanings of a certain word vary from different contexts, thus leading to problems regarding successful vocabulary acquisition. Liang (1996) also pointed out that the fossilized pattern of traditional teaching methods may somehow make learners passive or even indifferent to their vocabulary learning.. Furthermore, the role that vocabulary retention plays has long been valued in vocabulary learning (Pimsleur, 1967; Harmon, 1998; Johnson, 2.

(15) 2001; Huang, 2003; Jensen, 2005; Dondi & Moretti, 2007). Pimsleur (1967) claimed that should there be without effective reviewing processes, those acquired words would inevitably fade from learners‘ memory.. Huang. (2003). found. that. vocabulary. retention,. indeed,. decreases with a given period of time; the precipitation tends to be the most observable between an immediate vocabulary test and a one-week. 政治大. delayed test. Jensen (2005) claimed that examining learners‘ vocabulary. 立. retention ability is the most effective means of evaluating learners‘. ‧ 國. 學. vocabulary learning outcomes. Namely, language learners could hardly. ‧. achieve satisfied learning performance with words fading from th eir. Nat. io. sit. y. memory. However, retaining vocabular y in the set of EFL environments,. er. to some extent, can be fairly challenging since learners rarely have the. al. n. v i n Clanguage opportunities to practice the are picking up. Nation (2001) h e n g they chi U suggested that EFL learners tend to forget words easily if the retrieval. processes have not been frequently performed. As for educators, Sokmen (1997) indicated that teachers frequently meet the challenges of how to effectively enable learners to retain words they have learned.. Hence, language instructors have devoted to the development of effective and efficient pedagogies or computer -assisted learning tools for 3.

(16) facilitating vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention, aiming to help EFL learners master the language they are picking up.. 1.1 Background and Motivation With the rapid development of information and c ommunication technology (ICT) in the past decades, Computer -Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has greatly influenced traditional language learning. 政治大. approaches, and CALL has been highly confirmed as an effective. 立. approach to supporting language learning (Robert, 2002) . Among. ‧ 國. 學. previous studies of CALL, Nutta (1998) confirmed that computer-based. ‧. language learning pedagogy is more effective than teacher-directed. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. language instruction is. Moreover, Kuo and Chiang‘s study (2006) and. n. Yanguas‘s study (2009) confirmed the positive effects of utilizing. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. multimedia representations on vocabulary learning, thus verifying the effects of dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1986) and the multimedia learning theory on vocabulary learning (Mayer, 1997). In other words, supported by ICT, computer-assisted vocabulary learning provides learners with authentic materials and learning contexts so that language learners can enlarge their vocabulary size in a far more natural way.. In addition, according to an official report on the use of mobile 4.

(17) phones, the penetration rate of mobile phones in Taiwan has officially reached 126% (NCC, 2013). Within the past few decades, the rapid developments of ICT have enabled people to recognize the potentials of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) , and the effectiveness of MALL has been greatly discussed in previous studies. Among previous studies of MALL, Roschelle (2003) suggested that MALL, compared with. 政治大. other traditional learning approaches which have been employed in a. 立. fixed context, provides learners with opportunities to ―study anytime,. ‧ 國. 學. anywhere,‖ thus facilitating more frequent use of. the employed. ‧. mobile-assisted language learning technologies. Song and Fox (2008). Nat. io. sit. y. further proposed that MALL can support seamless, personalized,. n. al. er. authentic, and spontaneous lea rning. Their study confirmed that learners. Ch. engchi. indeed hold positive perceptions regarding. iv n the use U. of mobile-assisted. vocabulary learning. Similarly, Basoglu and Akdemir (2010) also indicated that MALL brings about entertaining use and ubiquitous availability, thus motivating learners to learn vocabular y actively. Moreover, Motallebzadeh et al. (2011) found that MALL can assist learners in accomplishing better vocabulary retention and reading comprehension, and Minooet al. (2012) also pointed out that MALL can 5.

(18) generate salient effects on learners‘ vocabulary retention. Mostafa and Zahra (2013) asserted that MALL can help learners achieve better vocabulary learning outcomes, and, in their study, learners utilizing mobile-assisted vocabulary learning were found to show a higher tendency to participate in vocabulary learning activities . Hence, it is confirmed from the previous empirical studies that MALL—when. 政治大. properly employed—can help learners generate positive influence on. 立. vocabulary acquisition, voca bulary retention, reading comprehension,. ‧ 國. 學. and learners‘ perceptions. It is obvious that vocabulary learning via. ‧. mobile devices can indeed be regarded as a promising means for. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. enlarging learners‘ vocabulary size.. n. Furthermore, the role that digital game-based learning (DGBL) plays. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. has been highly confirmed in the domain of learning technology. Prensky (2001) asserted that ―learning through games is a wave of the future.‖ In the domain of language learning, game-based learning has long been considered to augment students‘ interests in reviewing what they have learned. Particularly, Hogle (1996) emphasized that several attributes of games—including. challenge,. curiosity,. control,. and. fantasy—can. successfully facilitate learners‘ interests , motivation, and knowledge 6.

(19) retention. To meet the needs of ―learners as digital natives ‖ living nowadays, DGBL for supporting language learning has thus been regarded as a promising solution. In addition, Dondi and Moretti (2007) concluded that DGBL can help learners gain, memorize, recall , and employ acquired knowledge, and David et al.(2009) claimed that ―DGBL is a promising learning approach that may work better,‖ for the. 政治大. traditional approaches fail to foster high er knowledge retention and. 立. transfer rates. Their study also revealed that learners were highly. ‧ 國. 學. interested and excited about the implementations of DGBL. Moreover,. ‧. Huang et al. (2010) demonstrated that DGBL can encourage learners to. Nat. io. sit. y. be fully-motivated, thus leading to better learning outcomes. Similarly,. er. Kang (2012) also suggested that DGBL can ―spark learners‘ motivation. al. n. v i n performance,C h thus immersingUlearners engchi. and learning. in the learning. process.‖ Sukstrienwong and Vongsumedh (2013) concluded that learners generated positive perceptions of learning vocabulary through playing games on mobile devices, and t heir study confirmed that learners utilizing mobile devices for vocabulary learning showed the most significant improvement in terms of vocabulary learning. Similarly, Uzunet al. (2013) found that, in terms of vocabulary improvement rate , 7.

(20) learners utilizing DGBL outperformed the other groups, and the learners generate positive perceptions and attitudes toward using DGBL for vocabulary learning. Thus, the implementations of DGBL may greatly improve the tedious, less favored traditional vocabulary learning approaches and further exert positive influence on vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary retention, learners‘ motivation, and learners ‘ perceptions.. 1.2 Purpose of the Study. 立Taiwan. schools. in. still. employ. traditional. instruction. 學. ‧ 國. Most. 政治大. approaches for foreign languages (Liao, 2004). Namely, Taiwanese EFL. ‧. learners tend to passively memorize, understand, and reproduce what. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. have been taught. Several empirical studies on Taiwanese young adult. n. EFL learners‘ use of vocabulary learning strategies indicated that. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. repetition is still the most-used strategy (Wu, 2002; Wu, 2003; Liao, 2004; Chen & Yeh, 2004; Li et al., 2010). However, it has long been argued that repetition strat egy may make learners passive, or even indifferent, to their learning (Liang, 1996). In addition, Oblinger (2006) mentioned that language learners nowadays are ―digital natives.‖ Therefore, their needs and preferences saliently differ from other generation s. Goodman et al. (2006) further 8.

(21) claimed that mobile game-based learning can be employed to promote learners‘ motivation, knowledge acquisition, and learning effectiveness. Hence, to meet the needs of learners living in such a digital age , mobile game-based learning can be regarded as a promising solution for language learning. On the basis of what have been mentioned above, this study aims to. 政治大. assess the effects of utilizing mobile vocabulary learning APP with. 立. game-related functions (MVLA-GF) as a learning tool on facilitating. ‧ 國. 學. learners‘ vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention. Furthermore,. ‧. Taiwanese EFL learners‘ perceptions of using MVLA-GF is explored and. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. analyzed as well.. n. 1.3 Research Question s. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Three research questions proposed in this study are detailed as follows. 1. Is there a significant difference in the performance of vocabulary acquisition between the experimental group utilizing mobile vocabulary. learning. APP. with. game-related. functions. (MVLA-GF) and the control group using mobile vocabulary learning APP without game-related functions (MVLA-NGF)? 2. Is there a significant difference in the performance of vocabulary 9.

(22) retention between the experimental group utilizing MVLA-GF and the control group using MVLA -NGF? 3. Is there a significant difference in learners‘ perceptions between the experimental group utilizing MVLA-GF and the control group using MVLA-NGF? 4. What are the correlations among learners' usage behaviors and. 政治大. their learning performance?. 立. 1.4 Limitations of the Study. ‧ 國. 學. Caused by inevitable practical concerns, several limitations of this. ‧. study are addressed respectively as follows.. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. First, number of the research participants was only 20 owing to the. v. n. difficulty in recruiting volunteers who use Android-based mobile devices.. Ch. engchi. i n U. The small sample size of this study may be a challenge for the findings to be significantly representative. Second, participants selected in this study may not represent all the socioeconomic groups or educational groups in the target population — Taiwanese EFL learners. Third, with the dissimilar attributes among learners with different native languages, results of this study may not be generalized to other 10.

(23) population groups, such as Japanese EFL learners, Korean EFL learners, and so forth. Forth, results of this study may not be applicable to other assortments of. mobile. vocabulary learning. APPs ,. but. only to. homogeneous. applications as the employed one. Finally, being subject to the limitations in the experimental design,. 政治大. the length of the experiment lasts for merely four weeks. A longer time. 立. learning performance. or. on their. attitudes. 學. toward. game-based learning for English vocabulary learning .. using. mobile. Nat. y. ‧. ‧ 國. for the experiment may exert different impacts either on participants‘. er. io. al. sit. 1.5 Definition of Terms. n. 1.5.1. Vocabulary Learning. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Meara (1980) defined vocabulary learning as ―the way people have their vocabulary size expanded when picking up a language.‖ Besides, Jensen. (2005). asserted. that. ―apart. from. vocabulary. acquisition,. vocabulary retention is also one of the pivotal factors of evaluating learners‘ learning outcomes.‖ Thus, in this study, vocabulary learning is defined as ―the way people acquire and retain vocabulary when picking up a language.‖ 11.

(24) 1.5.2. Mobile Game-Based Learning Mobile game-based learning was defined by Goodman et al. (2006) as ―a game specifically devised for learning, which is played on a mobile phone, smart phone, personal digital assistant (PDA), or other handheld devices.‖ This study uses ―mobile vocabulary learning APP with game-related functions (MVLA-GF)‖ to represent the mobile game-based. 政治大. learning employed in the experimental group .. 立. 1.5.3. Learners’ Perceptions. ‧ 國. 學. According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, perception denotes ―the. ‧. way people think about someone or something .‖ Thus, in this study, the. Nat. io. sit. y. term, learners‘ perceptions, is defined as ―the way learners think about. n. al. er. the employed learning approach .”. Ch. engchi. 12. i n U. v.

(25) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter first reviews theories and studies associated with vocabulary. learning.. Then,. the. impacts. and. implementations. of. mobile-assisted language learning on vocabulary learning are discussed. Lastly, previous studies on digital game -based vocabulary learning are addressed.. 2.1 Vocabulary Learning. 立. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. 2.1.1 Importance of Vocabulary Le arning. A multitude of studies indicated that the development of vocabulary. ‧. size is significantly related to learners‘ overall language proficiency. sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. (Wilkins, 1972; Laufer & Sim, 1985; Laufer, 1992; Harmon, 1998; Read,. i n U. v. 2000; Pikulski & Templeton, 2004; Jensen, 2005). Among previous. Ch. engchi. studies on vocabulary learning, Read (2000) claimed that vocabulary learning is extremely important when picking up a foreign language since vocabulary lays the foundation for general comprehension. Similarly, Ruddel and Shearer (2002) also indicated that learners equipped with a wide vocabulary size, compared with those having limited vocabulary size, are more likely to be proficient learners. That is, learners can hardly accomplish successful learning if the y encounter many unfamiliar words. 13.

(26) Furthermore, Nation (2001) pointed out that ―successful learners customarily internalize the use of language by committing a myriad of vocabularies to their long-term memory.‖ Namely, not only do language learners aspiring to be proficient need a large vocabulary size, but they also ought to be competent to employ those words adequately (Pikulski & Templeton, 2004).. 政治大. Undoubtedly, vocabulary size has long been regarded as one of the. 立. most significant factors discerning learn ers‘ language proficiency.. ‧ 國. 學. Goulden, Nation, and Read (1990) pointed out that a five -year-old native. ‧. child should know approximately 4,000 to 5,000 word families; college. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. graduates ought to be familiar with around 20,000 word families. In. n. addition, Francis and Kucera (1982) pointed out that being familiar with. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. roughly 2,000 word families enables one to understand almost 8 0 percent coverage of the texts , and Laufer (1992) concluded that 3,000 word families, or 5,000 lexical entities, are the basic requirement for general comprehension. Moreover, Nation and Waring (1997) suggested that EFL learners should know at least 3,000 high -frequency words. Thus, should learners fail to cross the threshold of being familiar with 3,000 word families or 3,000 high-frequency words, their learning processes or 14.

(27) general comprehension may be heavily impeded.. With regard to the situation in Taiwan, it is expected that Taiwanese senior high school graduates should be familiar with approximately 3,850 to 4,320 words (Huang, 1997); however, it has long been suggested that mastering 7,000 words would be sufficient for students to successfully cope with the Joint College Entrance Examination. Thus, before. 政治大. attending colleges, Taiwanese students are anticipated to be familiar with. 立. enough high-frequency words, which exceed the threshold of general. ‧ 國. 學. comprehension as previous studies (Francis & Kucera, 1982; Laufer,. ‧. 1992; Nation & Waring, 1997) have suggested.. io. n. al. vocabulary. in. the. setting. of. EFL. er. learning. sit. y. Nat. Nevertheless,. i n U. v. environments, to some extent, would be fairly challenging, for learners. Ch. engchi. rarely have the opportunities to practice the language they are picking up. As a result, EFL learners tend to forget words easily, and educators frequently meet the challenges of how to effectively make learne rs able to retain the words they have learned (Nation, 2001; Sökmen, 1997). Hence, developing appropriate approaches to effectively enlargin g learners‘ vocabulary size has long been a pivotal issue. Harmon (1998) claimed that students‘ vocabulary size can be effectively facilitated 15.

(28) through instructors‘ explicit instruction , and, Johnson (2001) also proposed guidelines suggesting that teachers should help learners be ―related in contexts naturally‖ and ―exposed to the words they are learning repeatedly‖ so t hat they can actually acquire and retain those words.. 2.1.2 Defining Vocabulary Acquisition. 政治大. Vocabulary is a set of words with which people are familiar in a. 立. language. Carter (1987) gave his definition of vocabulary in Vocabulary:. ‧ 國. 學. Applied linguistic perspectives, which denoted that vocabulary—consisted of. ‧. three parts: forms, sounds, and meanings—is regarded as the ―minimal. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. meaningful unit‖ in a sentence. In order to successfully acquire words,. v. n. one should know the spoken and written form of words and also has to. Ch. engchi. i n U. know how to actively and properly employ the acquired words. Similarly, for the purpose of acquiring a new word, Ellis (1995) claimed that learners should first recognize it as a word, and then enter it into their mental lexicon. Afterwards, lea rners must learn the syntactic property, semantic property, and referential property of the word. That is, vocabulary acquisition is about mastering and adequately employing the acquired words when a proper situation arises. 16.

(29) In addition to Carter ‘s (1987) and Ellis‘s (1995) viewpoints, Nation (2001) also proposed nine factors for acquiring a word , including spoken forms, written forms, word parts, forms and meanings, concepts and references,. associations,. grammatical. function s,. collocations,. and. constraints on use of a word. Moreover, Nation claimed that there are three processes in terms of vocabulary acquisition: noticing process,. 政治大. retrieval process, and generative use process. Namely, learners would. 立. first notice certain words through reading, listening, or speaking. Then,. ‧ 國. 學. the retrieval process is expected to strengthen learners‘ memory of the. ‧. words. Afterwards, learners may re -use those words they have learned in. Nat. al. n. 2.1.3 Defining Vocabulary Retention. Ch. engchi. er. io. sit. y. the same or dissimilar contexts.. i n U. v. The importance of vocabulary retention has long been confirmed by previous studies (Pimsleur, 1967; Sousa, 2001; Huang, 2003; Sprenger. 2005). Pimsleur (1967) proposed graduated interval recall hypothesis, which denotes that those acquired words would inev itably fade from learners‘ memory if there are without reviewing processes. Namely, never could a language learner achieve satisfactory learning performance when words fade from their memory. Adopting Pimsleur ‘s (1967) hypothesis, 17.

(30) Huang (2003) conducted an empirical study and pointed out that vocabulary retention indeed decrea ses over a given period of time , and the precipitation tends to be most observable between an immediate vocabulary test and a one-week delayed test. Furthermore, Jensen (2005) claimed that examining learners‘ retention ability is the most effective means of evaluating learners‘ vocabulary learning performance. In. 政治大. addition, Sousa (2001) pointed out that when learners learn in a sensible,. 立. meaningful way, the learned information would effectively be retained in. ‧ 國. 學. their memory bank. That is, a successful instructor should associate. ‧. vocabulary with authentic real -life contexts in order to facilitate students‘. Nat. io. sit. y. vocabulary retention, since students‘ competence to store and recall what. n. al. er. they have learned exerts considerable influence on their learning performance.. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Moreover, repetition strategies seem to serve as a pivotal means in terms of facilitating learners‘ vocabulary retention. Sprenger (2005) claimed that repetition strategies can effectively strengthen the networks of neurons, thus enabling learners to form long -term memories. Namely, the more learners review certain words, the higher possibilities those words stay in learners‘ long-term memories. Therefore, a successful 18.

(31) educator or a helpful learning instrument should help learners with vocabulary retention by periodically reviewing learned vocabulary. However, it has long been argued by Liang (1996) that repetition strategies may make learners passive, or even indifferent, to their learning. 2.1.4 Empirical Studies on Vocabulary Learning Strategies. 政治大. Previous studies have confirmed that vocabulary learning strategies. 立. can effectively facilitate learners‘ vocabulary learning (Nation, 1990;. ‧ 國. 學. Stoffer, 1995; Schmitt, 1997). However, the framework of vocabulary. ‧. learning strategies is still in an embryonic state (Schmitt, 1997).. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. Monheimer (2004) summarized that there are at least three pivotal. n. major approaches depicting the distinc tive processes of vocabulary. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. learning: (1) Bottom -up theory, (2) Top-down theory, and (3) Interactive theory. The bottom-up theory signifies that learners construct the meanings from the texts —letters, words, phrases, or sentences. The top-down theory, on the other hand, denotes that vocabulary learning actually starts with higher-level mental stage. The interactive theory mainly focuses on the cyclical process between learner ‘s mental activities and the texts. In addition, Stoffer (1995) employed statistic al 19.

(32) factor analysis and proposed nine frequently-used vocabulary learning strategies:. (1). strategies. concerning. authentic. language. use;. (2). strategies concerning creative activities; (3) strategies employed to promote motivation; (4) strategies employed to create mental linkages; (5) memory strategies; (6) visual or auditory strategies; (7) strategies involving physical action; (8) strategies utilized to overcome anxiety; (9). 政治大. strategies utilized to organize words. Moreover, Schmitt (1997) proposed. 立. vocabulary learning strategies consisted of five categories, including the. ‧ 國. 學. determination strategy, social strategy, memory strategy, cognitive. ‧. strategy, and meta-cognitive strategy. Firstly, determination strategies. Nat. io. sit. y. denote that learners employ their prior knowledge, the contextual clues,. er. or the reference to construct the meanings of words. Secondly, social. al. n. v i n strategies are employed to C facilitate learning through the interaction with heng chi U. others. Thirdly, memory strategies can help learners relate what they are learning to their prior knowledge. Fourthly, cognitive strategies are expected to assist learners in ―manipulating and transforming the entities in the target language.‖ Lastly, meta -cognitive strategies focus on the conscious overview of the learning process. The comp lete taxonomy of the vocabulary learning strategies proposed by Schmitt is presented in 20.

(33) Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (Schmitt, 1997) Discovery Strategies DET. SOC. Analyze part of speech Analyze any available pictures or gestures Monolingual dictionary Ask teacher for an L1 translation Ask classmates for meaning. Analyze part of speech. Check for L1 cognate. Guess from textual context. Bilingual dictionary. Word lists Ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of new word. Flash cards Ask teacher for a sentence including the new word. Discover new meaning through group work activity. 政治大. Consolidation Strategies. n. Configuration. Part of Speech (remembering) Learn the words of an idiom together Verbal repetition. COG. MET. Connect word to a personal experience. Connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms. Use Semantic maps. Peg Method. Loci Method. Image word form. Use new word in sentences. y. Group words together spatially on a page Study the spelling of a word. sit. io. al. Image word's meaning. ‧. Nat. MEM. Interact with native speakers. 學. Study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning Associate the word with its coordinates Use 'scales' for gradable adjectives Group words together to study them Group words together within a storyline Say new word aloud when studying. Teacher checks students' flash card s or wo rd lists for 3 3 9 Accuracy. Study the sound of a word. er. 立. ‧ 國. SOC. Study and practice meaning in a group. C hUse Keyword MethodU n i i e n g cthehwords Paraphrase meaning Use Physical action when learning a word Written Repetition. Flash Cards. Take notes in class. Listen to tape of word lists Use English-language media. Put English labels on physical objects Testing oneself with word tests Continue to study word over time. Skip or pass new word. Underline initial letter of the word Affixes and Roots (remembering). v. Use cognates in study Use semantic feature grids. Word Lists Use the vocabulary section in your textbook Keep a vocabulary notebook Use spaced word practice. DET indicates determination strategy; SOC indicates social strategy; MEM indicates memory strategy; COG indicates cognitive strategy; MET indicates meta-cognitive strategy.. 21.

(34) With regard to Taiwanese young adult EFL learners‘ use of vocabulary learning strategies, several empirical stud ies have been conducted in the past decade (Wu, 2002; Wu, 2003; Liao, 2004; Chen & Yeh, 2004; Chen & Andrew, 2009; Li et al., 2010). Table 2.2 represents summary of the empirical studies on Taiwanese young adult EFL learners‘ use of vocabulary learning strategies.. 政治大. Table 2.2 Summary of Empirical Studies on Taiwanese Young Adult EFL Learners’ Use of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Researc Particip Findings her(s) ants  69% of the participants used mental lexicon to memorize the words;  62% of the subjects actually applied the 476 vocabularies to daily conversations; Wu junior  74% of the participants used repetition (2002) college strategy to memorize words; students  The participants, when identified with 3 levels of English proficiency, showed no differences in terms of the use of vocabulary acquisition strategies  Most of the subjects utilized repetition strategies to perform vocabulary learning 329  Participants believed that repetition Wu senior strategies were the most instrumental (2003) college  Participants using sound analysis to students remember words tended to have better English proficiency  The ranking of most -used vocabulary discovery strategies was: (1) Use bilingual dictionary; (2) Ask teacher for an L1 Chen 90 translation; (3) Guess from textual context; and Yeh college and (4) Ask classmates for meaning. (2004) students  The ranking of most -used vocabulary consolidating strategies was: (1) Take notes in class; (2) Use verbal repetition; (3) Study. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. 22. i n U. v.

(35) the sound of the word; (4) Use. . Liao (2004). 625  first-year college students . ‧ 國.  . 170 college students. ‧. Li et al. (2010). 立. 148 college students. 政治大. 學. Chen and Andrew (2009). . English-language media; (5) Say new words aloud when studying; and (6) Study the spelling of the word. The most-used strategies were: (1) Use electronic bilingual dictionary; (2) Use written repetition; (3) Study the sound of the word; and (4) Use verbal repetition. The least-used strategies were: (1) Underline the initial letter of the word; (2) Image the word form; (3) Use physical objects; (4) Use the new word with native speakers; and (5) Use semantic maps. There were significant differences between female and male participants regarding the use of vocabulary learning strategies. Taiwanese college students favored the translation strategies which would be conducive to the understanding of words Meta-cognitive strategies, which assist them in the evaluation of learning process. The ranking of the most -used vocabulary learning strategies was: (1) repetition strategy; (2) social strategy; (3) affective strategy; (4) cognitive strategy; (5) memory strategy; and (6) meta-cognitive strategy.. io. sit. y. Nat. er. It is confirmed from the empirical studies on Taiwanese young adult. al. n. v i n C h learning strategies EFL learners‘ use of vocabulary e n g c h i U (Wu, 2002; Wu, 2003; Liao, 2004; Chen & Yeh, 2004; Li et al., 2010) that repetition strategy is still favored by Taiwanese EFL learners.. In. addition,. to. promote. vocabulary. learning. performance,. vocabulary games have been frequently employed to augment students‘ interests in reviewing words they have learned (Sökm en, 1997; You et al., 2000; Huyen & Nga, 2003). The appealing attributes of vocabulary games 23.

(36) enable learners to retain vocabulary effortlessly. Allen (1983) claimed that vocabulary games, such as crossword puzzles, can provide students with more opportunit ies to employ and practice vocabular y they have picked up. Similarly, Gairns and Redman (1986) exerted several vocabulary practices as warm -up or end-of-class activities and confirmed that vocabulary games, indeed, help ed students memorize the words.. 政治大. Furthermore, Sökmen (1997) indicated that competitive vocabulary. 立. games can be used in class to ―recycle vocabularies ,‖ thus facilitating. ‧ 國. 學. vocabulary learning performance. Similarly, You et al. (2000) also. ‧. employed vocabulary games to assist students in reviewing the words. Nat. io. sit. y. they had learned in order to facilitate learners‘ vocabulary retention.. er. Moreover, Huyen and Nga (2003) demonstrated that vocabulary games. al. n. v i n are effective learning toolsC and h ecannbeg cemployed h i U for reviewing what have been taught.. 2.1.5 Conclusion In the domain of language learning, the importance of vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention has long been confirmed (Pimsleur, 1967; Wilkins, 1972; Laufer & Sim, 1985; Laufer, 1992; Harmon, 1998; Read, 2000; Nation, 2001; Johnson, 2001; Huang, 2003; Pikulski & 24.

(37) Templeton, 2004; Jensen, 2005; Dondi & Moretti, 2007). However, vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention consistently exert as an obstacle to overcome since EFL learners rarely have the opportunities to practice the language they are picking up (Sokmen, 1997; Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2001). Therefore, EFL learners tend to forget words easily, while EFL educators frequently meet the challenges of how to effectively make. 政治大. learners able to retain the acquired words (Nation, 2001; Sökmen, 1997).. 立. Developing effective approaches to enlarging learners‘ vocabulary size. ‧ 國. 學. has thus been a critical issue in language learning field (Harmon, 1998;. ‧. Johnson, 2001).. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. Among several vocabulary learning strategies proposed by previous. n. studies (Monheimer, 2004; Stoffer, 1995; Schmitt, 1997), empirical. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. studies on Taiwanese EFL learners‘ use of vocabulary learning strategies have confirmed that repetition strategy is still t he most-used strategy of Taiwanese EFL learners (Wu, 2002; Wu, 2003; Liao, 2004; Chen & Yeh, 2004; Li et al., 2010). However, Liang‘s study (1996) argued that repetition strategy may make learners passive, or even indifferent, to their learning.. Vocabulary games,. as a promising approach,. are. considered as a potential learning tool (Allen, 1983; Sökmen, 1997; 25.

(38) Huyen & Nga, 2003), aiming to augment learners‘ interests and further facilitate their vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary retention (Gairns & Redman, 1986; Sökmen, 1997; You et al., 2000; Huyen & Nga, 2003).. Thus, this study aims to assess whether mobile vocabulary learning APP with game-related functions (MVLA-GF) can improve the tedious, less favored traditional vocabulary learning approach es and further exert. 政治大. positive influence on vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary retention, and learners‘ perceptions.. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 2.2 Mobile-Assisted Language Learning. Nat. sit. y. ‧. 2.2.1 Defining Mobile-Assisted Language Learning. io. n. al. er. According to an official report from National Communication. i n U. v. Commission, the penetration rate of mobile PHONEs in Taiwan has. Ch. engchi. reached 126% (NCC, 2013). Mobile devices, indeed, have greatly changed our lives in many aspects. In the domain of language learning, Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) has greatly altered our perspectives on language learning approac hes within the past few decades. The impacts of MALL on language learning performance have been widely discussed in previous studies ( Hulstijn & Atkins, 1998; Face et al., 2004; Traxler, 2005; Arani, 2010; Ali & Hossein, 2011; Tayebeh & 26.

(39) Amin, 2012; Zeinab & Nafiseh, 2012; Minoo et al., 2012; Mostafa & Zahra, 2013). Hulstijn and Atkins (1998) asserted that mobile devices can fit into users‘ mobile lifestyles, and that mobile technology enables innovative learning approaches emphasizing advantages brought by MALL, such as continuity,. spontaneity,. personalization,. and. portability.. Similarly,. 政治大. Chinnery (2006) pointed out that although desk computers excel at. 立. dealing with versatile formats of information, mobile devices are. ‧ 國. 學. superior to desk computers in terms of portability. Face et al. (2004). ‧. pointed out that mobile devices have promoted a pedagogical shift from. Nat. io. sit. y. ―didactic teacher-centered‖ to ―student-centered learning.‖ In addition,. n. al. and. more. powerful,. is. er. Traxler (2005) pointed out that mobile learning, which is cheaper, lighter,. v i n Coneh of the natural e n g c h i U directions. in. which. computer-assisted language learning is anticipated to move. Levy and Kennedy (2005) also claimed that mobile learning is gaining attention because of its widespread use and versatile attributes —mobility, reachability, localization, and personalization. Moreover, Griffin (2010) concluded that mobile learning can be regarded as a supplement to extend traditional formal learning. Arani (2010) claimed that mobile learning, 27.

(40) deriving from computer-assisted language learning, can provide learners with the opportunities for independent practice and immediate corrective feedback. Ali and Hossein (2011) further asserted that MALL studies have gained prominence over the last few years. Zeinab and Nafiseh (2012) claimed that mobile devices can provide learners with an alternative way of learning, for portable gadg ets are widespread among. 政治大. people. Tayebeh and Amin (2012) indicated that the major attributes of. 立 ―spontaneous,. learning. are. ubiquitous,. informal,. and. 學. ‧ 國. mobile. personalized.‖ Hence, MALL can undoubtedly be regarded as an effective. ‧. language learning tool.. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. The definition of mobile learning is still in an embryonic state.. n. O‗Malley et al. (2003) claimed that mobile learning can be defined as. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. ―any assortment of learning which happens when the learners are not at a fixed location, or when the learners take the opportunities offered by mobile technologies.‖ Traxler (2005) pointed ou t that mobile learning can be referred to as ―educational provisions where the technologies are handheld or palmtop devices.‖ Winters (2006) argued that the definition of mobile learning should literally focus on the learners instead of centering on technologies. In addition, Kukulska-Hulme (2006) concluded that 28.

(41) mobile devices can provide learners with convenient, suited learning materials. Brown (2010) further indicated that mobile learning is the ―exploitation of ubiquitous handheld technologies.‖ Such ex ploitation can make the learning environments pervasive, thus facilitating and extending the processes of teaching and learning.. As for the differences between E -learning and Mobile learning,. 政治大. Laouris and Eteokleous (2005) claimed that the transition can be. 立. identified by analyzing the change of terminology. They made a list of. ‧ 國. 學. terminology comparisons, which is presented in Table 2.3, between the. ‧. two learning modes.. y. Nat. al. er. io. (Laouris & Eteokleous, 2005). n. E-learning Computer Bandwidth Multimedia Interactive Hyperlinked Collaborative Media-rich Distance learning More formal Simulated situation. Ch. sit. Table 2.3 Comparisons between E -learning and Mobile Learning. engchi. hyper learning. v. Mobile Learning Mobile GPRS, Bluetooth Objects Spontaneous Connected Networked Lightweight Situated learning Informal Realistic situation Constructivism; Situationism; Collaborative. i n U. As Table 2.3 reveals, E-learning features properties such as computer-based, multimedia, interactive, hyperlinked, media -rich, and 29.

(42) formal learning environments. Mobile learning, on the other hand, features properties including mobile-based, intimate, situated, informal, connected,. lightweight,. private,. and. spontaneo us.. Similarly,. Mostakhdemin-Hosseini and Tuimala (2005) suggested that mobile learning can be regarded as the evolution of E -learning; thus, mobile learning can be referred to as a component to augment E -learning.. 政治大. 2.2.2 MALL: Strengths and Limitations. 立. ‧ 國. 學. Just as every coin has two sides, perspectives among previous studies regarding MALL, to some extent, are discrepant and paradoxical.. ‧. Some researchers champion the benefits brought by this innovative. sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. leaning approach, while others strongly oppose this idea . To illustrate,. i n U. v. Roschelle (2003) suggested that mobile learning, compared with other. Ch. engchi. traditional learning approaches employed at a fixed location, provides learners. with. opportunities. to. ―study. anytime,. anywhere,‖. thus. facilitating active involvement in learning activities. Levy and Kennedy (2005) concluded that MALL can be regarded as a trigger to motivate learners‘ self-learning. Chinnery (2006) also pointed out that learners utilizing mobile learning instruments can access learning materials and communicate with others ―with less time and fewer space constraints.‖ 30.

(43) In addition, Stead (2005) claimed that mobile learning can facilitate all of the following stages in the learning process: (1) Engagement: Attributes of mobile learning, such as novelty and vi sual-and-auditory appeals, can exert influence on promoting learners‘ engagement; (2) Teaching: Mobile learning employs innovative technologies and has greatly changed the traditional teaching in many aspects; (3) Practice:. 政治大. Learners can practice what they have learned whenever and wherever. 立. they prefer, for the materials are consistently available on their mobile. ‧ 國. 學. devices; and (4) Assessment: Mobile -based assessment is less threatening. ‧. than paper-based or computer-based assessment is. Besides, formative. Nat. al. er. io. sit. y. assessment can also be administered by utilizing mobile technology.. n. Furthermore, Geddes (2004) proposed three major advantages of. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. mobile learning: access, context, and collaboration. First, Geddes (2004) indicated that the ability to access information faster and more effectively is one of the most significant advantages of mobile learning. Next, mobile learning embedded with simulated authentic contexts can provide learners with real -time scenario as well as problem -based learning activities. Thirdly, mobile l earning can be employed to ―encourage both independent and collaborative learners,‖ thus helping 31.

(44) them to develop better understanding of what they are learning. In addition, Klopfer, Squire, and Jenkins (2002) proposed five advantages brought by mobile learning, including portability, social interactivity, context sensitivity, connectivity, and individuality. On the other hand, Traxler (2007) proposed six merits brought by mobile learning, including contingent learning, situated learning, authentic learning , context-aware. 政治大. learning, augmented reality mobile learning, and personalized learning.. 立. However, perspectives of some studies fall on the pessimistic side.. ‧ 國. 學. Wang and Higgins (2006) gave an overview of the pedagogical,. ‧. psychological, and technical barriers regarding mobile learning. Their. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. study argued that mobile learning may be time -consuming for some. n. learners to fit into new technologies, and some learners may feel. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. uncomfortable when adopting new technologies. Similarly, Dias (2002) argued that some learne rs may regard mobile learning approaches as ―the intrusion into their own personal space,‖ which may deter them from accepting mobile learning.. In addition, technical restrictions may as well be another limitation of MALL. Lu (2008) argued that learning m aterials may be limited due to the small screen of mobile devices; that the limited interface may lead to 32.

(45) difficulty in clicking bottoms or reading materials; and that too much memory load was occupied for storing learning materials. Similarly, Stockwell (2010) pointed out that technical constraints may be learners‘ top concerns; that the small screen may bring about difficulties; that a longer time may be needed to work on the same tasks on mobile PHONEs; and that in order to fit the limited screen size, a simplified version of the learning tool is needed.. 立. 政治大. Apart from the technical constraints, possible distraction may exert. ‧ 國. 學. as a limitation of MALL as well. That is, the MALL attributes of. ‧. portability and ubiquity, to certain extent, may backfire. Stockwell (2010). y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. asserted that learning via mobile devices may be too distractin g for some. n. learners to work on a task in a noisy environment. Similarly, Lu (2008). Ch. engchi. i n U. v. claimed that, for some learners, MALL may exert negative influe nce on learning, especially in terms of the impedance of concentration.. 2.2.3 Empirical Studies on Mobile -Assisted Vocabulary Learning. In line with the burgeoning properties of MALL, a multitude of empirical studies on mobile -assisted vocabulary learning were conducted within the past few years. Table 2.4 shows summary of s everal empirical. 33.

(46) studies on mobile-assisted vocabulary learning.. Table 2.4 Summary of Empirical Studies on Mobile-Assisted Vocabulary Learning Researc Particip Findings her(s) ants  The participants‘ post -test scores are Thornto n and Houser (2005). significantly improved in the set of MALL. 333 college students. learning environments. . 93% of the participants felt that MALL is a valuable teaching method.. . 立 with ubiquitous, personalized learning. 15 English teachers. ‧ 國. environments. . ‧. College learners held positive perceptions of the use of PDA in vocabulary learning.. er. io. sit. . y. and vocabulary abilities.. . al. PDA can effectively facilitate vocabulary. . PDA can serve as a promising learning. n 36 college students. PIMS can effectively and efficiently exert influence on learners‘ reading comprehension. Nat Song and Fox (2008). 學. Chen and Hsu (2008). 治政大can provide learners mobile-learning APP) PIMS (personalized intelligent. Ch. learning;. engchi. i n U. v. instrument, thus realizing seamless, personalized, authentic, and spontaneous learning. . Cavus and Ibrahim (2009). 45 college students. The participants indeed acquired new words with the help of MoLT (Mobile learning tool).. . The participants were highly-motivated to learn vocabulary with MOLT.. Basoglu and Akdemir (2010). 60 college students. . The participants utilizing mobile PHONEs as the learning tool outperformed the other 34.

(47) groups in the vocabulary tests. . MALL, compared with traditional learning approaches, brings about entertaining use and ubiquitous availability, thus successfully motivating users to learn vocabularies.. . The participants utilizing smart PHONEs as the learning tool spent more time on the. Sandber g et al. (2011). 85 Fifth graders. learning activities; . The participants utilizing smartPHONEs as the learning tool outperformed the other groups in the vocabulary tests.. . ‧ 國. 立 better reading comprehension. 40 college students. . MALL is an effective and flexible learning. y. . ‧. retention.. sit. tool.. The result of the delayed post -test showed. al. that MALL had significant effect on. n . er. . io 45 college students. The participants utilizing SMS as the learning tool showed better vocabulary. Nat Minoo et al. (2012). 學. Motalleb zadeh et al. (2011). 政治大 message service) as the learning tool showed The participants utilizing SMS (short. v i n Ch vocabulary i U e n gretention. h c MALL is a useful way to help learners retain vocabularies in their long-term memory.. . The participants utilizing MALL as the learning tool outperformed the other groups. Mostafa and Zahra (2013). in the vocabulary tests. 40 college students. . The participants utilizing MALL as the learning tool exhibited a higher tendency to participate in the learning activities.. . MALL exerts positive influence on learners‘ vocabulary learning performance. 35.

(48) Empirical studies on mobile-assisted vocabulary learning have confirmed that MALL can exert positive influence on vocabulary acquisition (Thornton & Houser, 2005; Kennedy & Levy, 2008; Chen & Hsu, 2008; Mostafa & Zahra, 2013); reading comprehension (Chen & Hsu, 2008; Motallebzadeh et al., 2011); learners‘ perceptions (Thornton & Houser, 2005; Song & Fox, 2008); learners‘ motivation (Cavus &. 政治大. Ibrahim, 2009; Basoglu & Akdemir, 2010); learners‘ engagement. 立. (Sandberg et al., 2011; Mostafa & Zahra, 2013); and vocabulary retention. ‧ 國. 學. (Motallebzadeh et al., 2011; Minoo et al., 2012; Mostafa & Zahra, 2013).. ‧. 2.2.4 Conclusion. sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. Within the past few decades, the rapid developments in the domain of. i n U. v. information communication technology (ICT) have led to numerous. Ch. engchi. studies confirming potentials of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) in promoting language learning performance (Hulstijn & Atkins, 1998; Face et al., 2004; Traxler, 2005; Arani, 2010; Ali & Hossein, 2011; Tayebeh & Amin, 2012; Zeinab & Nafiseh , 2012; Minoo et al., 2012; Mostafa & Zahra, 2013). To illustrate, merits brought by mobile -assisted language learning include immediacy, portability (Sharples, 2000); ubiquitous learning (Sharples, 2000; Chen & Hsu, 2008); social 36.

(49) interactivity, individuality (Klopfer, Squire, & Jenkins, 2002); study anytime and anywhere (Roschelle, 2003); context, collaboration (Geddes, 2004); assessment (Geddes, 2004; Stead, 2005); engagement (Stead, 2005); contingent learning, situated learning, context aware l earning, augmented reality mobile learning (Traxler, 2007); personalized learning (Traxler, 2007; Chen & Hsu, 2008), authentic learning (Traxler, 2007;. 政治大. Song & Fox, 2008); seamless learning, and spontaneous learning (Song &. 立. addition,. empirical. studies. have. 學. In. further. confirmed. that. ‧. ‧ 國. Fox, 2008).. MALL—when employed properly—can exert positive influence on. y. Nat. er. io. sit. vocabulary acquisition (Thornton & Houser, 2005; Kennedy & Levy,. a l 2008; Mostafa & Zahra, v 2013); reading i n Ch U e n Mot comprehension (Chen & Hsu, 2008; et al., 2011); learners‘ hi g callebzadeh Chen. &. Hsu,. n. 2008;. perceptions (Thornton & Houser, 2005; Song & Fox, 2008); learners‘ motivation (Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009; Basoglu & Akdemir, 2010); learners‘ engagement (Sandberg et al., 2011; Mostafa & Zahra, 2013); and vocabulary retentio n (Motallebzadeh et al., 2011; Minoo et al., 2012; Mostafa & Zahra, 2013).. Undoubtedly, learning vocabulary via mobile devices has been 37.

(50) regarded as a promising, practical tool for effectively enlarging learners‘ vocabulary. size.. Thus,. this. study. aims. to. a ssess. whether. MALL—embedded with additional game -related functions—can improve the tedious, less favored traditional vocabulary learning approach and further exert positive influence on vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary retention, and learners‘ perception s.. 政治大. 2.3 Digital Game-Based Learning 2.3.1 Defining Games. 立. ‧ 國. 學. When it comes to the definition of games, researchers harbored. ‧. distinct perspectives respectively (Wittgenstein, 1953; Caillois, 1961;. y. Nat. al. er. io. sit. Crookall et al., 1987; Hays, 2005). Caillois (1961) referred to games as. n. ―activities which are voluntary, enjoyable, separated from real world,. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. uncertain, unproductive, and governed by rules.‖ Hays (2005) and Crookall et al. (1987) indicated that games are ―artificially-constructed, competitive activities with a specif ic goal and a set of constraints.‖ However, Wittgenstein (1953) claimed that hardly can we successfully define games since there are no properties that are common to all games.. In the domain of language games, Hadfield (1999) divided language games into the following nine categories: (1) sorting, ordering, or 38.

(51) arranging games; (2) information gap games; (3) guessing games; (4) searching. games;. (5). matching. games;. (6). labeling. games;. (7). exchanging games; (8) board games, and (9) role -play games. In addition, Hung and Young (2007) divided English vocabulary learning games into six categories and further formulated a comparison of them. The comparison of English vocabulary learning games is presented in Table 2.5.. 立. 政治大. io. al. Prone to fall into puzzle with limited answer. A common way to test learners‘ word level. Need to patiently observe. Less implementation in the classroom. n. Quiz. Hungman. Match. Word jumble. Ch. implementation. y. sit. Nat. Word search. Disadvantage. er. Cross-word puzzle. Advantage Facilitate the knowledge of word meaning on the basis of hints Train the sensibility with words examine the range of words and easily evaluate scores Strengthen word structure and memory Strengthen word ability by remembering word content and position Strengthen word memory by arranging. ‧. ‧ 國. Category. 學. Table 2.5 Classification of English Vocabulary Learning Games (Hung & Young, 2007). i n U. Less preferable. engchi. v. Serve as an exam. It may merely depend on luck. Class can be divided into several groups. Focus more on memory than word‘s meaning. Class can be divided into several groups. Less interesting. Train ability of spelling. Furthermore, Klopfer et al. (2009) defined digital learning games as. 39.

(52) activities ―targeting the acquisition of knowledge as its own end‖ and ―fostering habits of mind and understanding.‖ Klopfer et al. (2009) also indicated that digital learning games can be employed in all kinds of educational environments, or even in self -learning environments.. 2.3.2 Attributes of Game -Based Learning The importance of game-based learning has been highly recognized.. 政治大. Prensky (2001) indicated that learning through games is a wa ve of the. 立. future, and the mixture of serious learning and interacti ve entertainment. ‧ 國. 學. makes game-based learning an emerging learning approach. Prensky. ‧. (2001) further proposed that game -based learning leads to the following. er. io. sit. y. Nat. attributes:. (1) Games exert preferable and pleasant outcomes to learners;. n. al. Ch. (2) Games have rules and goals, thus guidance;. engchi. v i n providing U. undertakers with. (3) The competition attribute of games allows undertakers to achieve ego-gratification; (4) Games are challenging, thus bringing about excitement; (5) Games require problem -solving skills, which can facili tate learners‘ creativity; (6) The interaction attribute of games fosters learners‘ sense of belonging; (7) Games are adaptive, so they can be employed in different 40.

(53) contexts; (8) Games involve story and representation, thus allowing learners to learn in the authentic situation. In addition, Garris et al. (2002) proposed an Input Process Outcome Game Model, which is shown as Figure 2.1, to make the implicit game model explicit. As Figure 2.1 shows, the instructional content and the characteristics of games will trigger a cycle involving user judgments,. 治政 user behaviors, and APP feedback. Garris et al.大 (2002) also indicated that 立 game. ‧ 國. with. 學. successful learning, resulted from properly pairing instructional content features,. would. bring about. recurring, self -motivated. ‧. engagement. Eventually, learners‘ active engagement will lead to. sit. y. Nat. io. n. al. er. learning outcomes.. i n U. v. Figure 2.1 Input-Process-Outcome Game Model (Garris et al., 2002). Ch. engchi. Garris et al. (2002) further pointed out that game attributes can be categorized into the following dimensions: (1) Fantasy; (2) Rules or 41.

(54) goals; (3) Sensory stimuli; (4) Challenge; (5) Mystery; and (6) Control. The detailed descriptors of the six dimensions are pr esented in Table 2.6. Table 2.6 Dimensions of Game Attributes (Garris et al., 2002) Dimensions Fantasy Rules/ Goals Sensory Stimuli Challenge Mystery Control. 立. Descriptors Imaginary or fantasy context, themes, or characters Clear rules, goals, and feedback on progress toward goals Dramatic or novel visual and auditory stimuli Optimal level of difficulty and uncertain goal attainment Optimal level of informational complexity Active learner control. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Furthermore, Dondi and Moretti (2007) proposed six learning objectives regarding the use of games. The learning objectives and. ‧. corresponding appropriate games are presented in Table 2.7.. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. Table 2.7 Learning Objectives and Corresponding Appropriate Games (Dondi & Moretti, 2007) Learning Appropriate Definition Objective Games Factual knowledge Drill practice Recalling the Quiz games Retention learned Puzzle games information Driving games Sensorial knowledge Precision Simulation games Translating Sport games Applying concepts knowledge into new Action games context Strategic games Analysis of Role play games Decision making knowledge Simulation games Communication and Strategic games exchanging objects Role play games Interaction with other players Simulation games Question to foster Role play games Self-assessment reflection Simulation games. Ch. engchi. 42. i n U. v.