Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.3 Overview of CARICOM-Asia-Pacific Relations
2.3.4 CARICOM and Taiwan Relations
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‘virtuous’ policies of engagement”(Palit, 2014). The establishment of Confucius Institutes have aided in promoting China’s cultural diplomacy by bridging academic components and the urge for international dialogue among its neighbours. As of July 2015, all campuses of The University of the West Indies house a Confucius Institute where the curriculum comprises Mandarin Chinese, Chinese calligraphy, Tai chi and Chinese film.
2.3.4 CARICOM and Taiwan Relations
Taiwan has established diplomatic relations with 5 CARICOM nations namely, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Haiti, Saint Kitts and Nevis and Belize. Haiti was the first country to establish diplomatic ties with Taiwan in 1956.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China on Taiwan refers to Article 141 of the Constitution of Taiwan as a summary of its foreign policy goals:
“…in a spirit of independence and initiative and on the basis of the principles of equality and reciprocity, cultivate good-neighborliness with other nations, and respect treaties and the Charter of the United Nations, in order to protect the rights and interests of Chinese citizens residing abroad, promote international cooperation, advance international justice and ensure world peace.” (MOFA Taiwan, Article 141)
Under the Ma Ying Jiu Administration, Taiwan’s Diplomatic approach to its neighbours in the international community centers round the concept of viable diplomacy or flexible diplomacy. Viable Diplomacy is defined as a compromise that allows Taiwan to continue its diplomatic efforts, while still retaining and maintaining ties with China. It continues to observe the status-quo “while adhering to the principles of dignity, autonomy,
pragmatism, and flexibility. This policy has enabled Taiwan to consolidate relations with its diplomatic allies, strengthen substantive ties with countries with which it does not have diplomatic relations, expand its international participation, and obtain visa-waiver treatment.” (MOFA Taiwan, 2014).
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Viable Diplomacy forms part of the R.O.C.’s foreign policy towards Cross-strait affairs and international relations.
Though the Republic of China has also provided assistance with similar projects to countries, Taiwan's strategic approach has more of a soft power undertone. This was especially effective in its rapid relief effort in the aftermath of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti (Ong, 2010).
Moreover, CARICOM countries have benefited from the presence of the Taiwan Cultural Youth Ambassadors program that has since 2009 given CARICOM countries the
opportunity to enhance their international awareness of Taiwan’s many roles in the world as peacemaker, provider of humanitarian aid, promoter of cultural exchanges, creator of new technologies and business opportunities, and standard bearer of Chinese culture (Taiwan Today, 2014). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Ministry of Education and the International Cultural and Development Fund (ICDF) have also issued scholarships to CARICOM nationals for undergraduate, graduate and doctorate level programs in fields ranging from civil engineering to agriculture.
2.4 The Diaspora, Brain Drain and Monetary Gain
Gamlen (2008) defines a diaspora as having the following characteristics: “[the]
dispersion to two or more locations; ongoing orientation towards a homeland; and group boundary maintenance over time. (Butler; Brubaker 2001)” Thus (1) the host
country(ies) (2) the country of origin and the (3) the foreign community within that host country comprise a current consensus of the definition used in diaspora research. This sentiment is echoed by Makumi Mwagiru (2012) who notes that debate on a universally accepted definition of diaspora has led to emergent consensus on three specific criteria:
dispersion, homeland orientation and boundary maintenance:
“The first refers to any form of dispersion as long as territorial borders are crossed. It has
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been argued that ethnic communities divided by territorial borders also constitute a diaspora (Brubaker 2005:5). Homeland orientation requires some loyalty to, or
recognition of, a real or imagined homeland from which flow value, identity and loyalty.
Boundary maintenance involves maintaining an identity distinct from that of the host society, which can be done by resisting assimilation into the host society through self-segregation, or can be an unintended consequence of social exclusion (Brubaker 2005:6)”(Mwagiru, 2012) .
This leads to several common characteristics of diaspora communities, of which retention of collective memory, relation to homeland identity and the desire to use skills acquired in their host countries for the development of their own homeland are a few.
Reasons for the movement and relocation of communities from their countries of origin to new environments are primarily based on factors that Henry (2010) quotes Everett S.
Lee as attributing to the negative environments of the homeland versus the positive environments of countries of destination (Frazier: Harvey, 2010). Additionally, personal motivations and intervening obstacles (immigration laws and physical distance) are also determining factors. Asylum seekers, refugees of war and natural disasters, economic migrants can constitute types of diasporic communities.
2.4.1 Small-Island States amidst the Waves of Emigration.
Migration has produced positive and negative impacts on nations and regions. The mass movement of peoples to more developed countries has led to a depletion of much needed talent and human capital. However, with increased diaspora communities abroad,
countries have also benefited from their contributions from their host countries. By sending money to relatives back in their native countries, diaspora communities fuel the development of their homelands by injecting foreign currencies into their economies.
Remittances serve as the main and most profitable link between SIDS and their diaspora abroad. According to the Multilateral Investment Fund (MIF) of the Inter-American
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Development Bank (IDB) remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean region exceeded US$60billion in 2013. Seventy-five percent (75%) of the total amount of remittances was sent from the United States of America, with Spain contributing the second largest flow of capital to the region (Inter-American Development Bank, 2014).
Remittances to the Caribbean increased by 3 percent in 2013 compared to 2012, capping at US$8.5 billion. In 2005, at US$6.4million, the transmittals had already become the second largest source of capital for the region. But as early as 2002, the Caribbean region was already listed as the largest recipient of remittances globally (Roberts, 2006). It is evident that diaspora communities aid in the economic development of their home countries through remittances and additional capital flows of foreign currencies.
Additionally, the diaspora have caused local Caribbean businesses to enter into extra-regional niche markets due to the diaspora’s noticeable presence and their demand for local products. These statistics underscore the importance of capital flows to the region through the diaspora abroad.
Conversely, diaspora communities can also serve the purpose of enhancing the global awareness and cultural sensitivity of their host countries. Their presence and innate need for cultural expression have produced outlets for fostered people-to-people interactions, activism and engagement.
2.4.2 Diaspora Diplomacy: Utilizing Nationals Abroad
Diaspora Diplomacy represents one of ten types of state diplomacy approaches of small island states (Henrikson, 2008). Though an old concept in definition, literature on diaspora studies has gone through several phases; all of which expand and transform the classical perceptions of the term and how it applies to the present. The role and
involvement of diaspora in national policy and international relations has become a recent topic of discourse, particularly as a result of increased globalization and the mass
movement of peoples that have followed.
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The International Organization of Migration (IOM) reiterates the role of the diaspora as one that has the potential to reach “significant levels7. On a financial level, diaspora communities can make contributions to direct business investments, capital market investments and charity in addition to regular channels of remittances. However, the diaspora can also be involved in knowledge and skill transfers, creation of job markets and linkages, advocacy and developing civil society (Ionescu, 2006). :
With regards to diaspora-centered policy formation, the IOM alludes to effective diaspora policies as having:
(i) Enabling roles: whereby the focus is on attempting to find solutions to the hindrances that prevent diaspora communities from fully being able to contribute to the development of their home countries. Ministries would also need to be equipped with the necessary capacities to cater to diaspora affairs.
(ii) Inclusionary roles: recognizing and validating diaspora communities as full citizens, their input, potential and their contributions; increasing trust-building between the home-front and their diaspora through institutional change that makes allowances for nationals abroad.
(iii) Partnership roles: connecting the diaspora by creating opportunities for cooperation in between associations, regions, municipalities, public enterprises and the like.
(iv) Catalytic roles: whereby change is incited for the purpose of identifying and addressing issues facing diaspora communities8.
2.4.3 Diaspora Affairs: Where Does It Fit?
The brain drain has been an issue faced by both developed and developing nations.
However, transforming migration into a source of innovation, change and sustainability
7 Engaging the Diaspora for Development: IOM Policy-Oriented Research, International Organization on Migration, ,http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/shared/mainsite/policy_and_research/
policy_documents/iom_research.pdf
8 Engaging the Diaspora for Development: IOM Policy-Oriented Research, International Organization on Migration,http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/shared/mainsite/policy_and_research/p olicy_documents/iom_research.pdf
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had been observed by countries as a means of turning a handicap into an advantage.
Diaspora Affairs has thus become an important area of investment whereby governments and international organizations seek to maximize on the present contributions and
potential contributions of their respective diaspora.
In a survey issued by The Global Forum on Migration and Development, a total of 400 institutions across 56 countries have mechanisms of in place to connect and engage their diaspora communities. These institutions are present in the home and host countries. Out of this number, 77 were formally established with the specific function of focusing on diaspora engagement. Aguinas and Newland (2011) in analyzing the aforementioned data described such diaspora institutions as falling under six main categories:
(i) Ministry level: the establishment of separate ministries solely responsible for diaspora affairs,
(ii) Sub-ministry level: creation of offices or directorates as the subsidiaries of certain ministries (usually the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Labor), (iii) National level: institutions that although are not officially ministry of sub
ministry institutions still interact with the local government by reporting to the highest executive body (i.e. Presidential offices, state councils and legislative branches),
(iv) Local level: specified to particular local regions or territories within a county where diaspora communities still retain ties and possess a strong degree of familiarity, especially if the country is considerably large (ex. India:
Department of Non-resident Keralite's Affairs),
(v) Consular-related: utilizing the presence of overseas missions to take on diaspora related functions,
(vi) Quasi-governmental: under the guise of foundations, commissions and councils, countries are able to avoid possible accusations of intrusion into the affairs of host countries while still maintaining a relatively significant
presence in said country.
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From Nigeria to the Netherlands, Chile to China, and Guatemala to Georgia the presence of diaspora engagement institutions at the ascribed levels shows the increasing
importance, inclusion and utilization of the diaspora in practical areas. Inspiration can thus be derived from these more developed countries as they give insight into what a potential CARICOM-tailored diaspora initiative would involve and at what levels it could be employed.
For the Caribbean region, such avenues for policy formulation are vital for spurring incentive among its diaspora to continue to contribute and invest in their home countries and the region. Mortley (2014) notes that Caribbean migrants are interested in investing in their countries, providing that favorable policy conditions, incentives and benefits are given. Additionally, by consulting the national and regional associations abroad in the policy-making process, the effectiveness of policy implementation is more guaranteed and it also promotes greater transparency.
Though the collective diaspora engagement institutions of specific regional hubs like CARICOM were not included in the survey, it does not diminish the significance of the presence of these individual institutions. Countries such as Jamaica and Haiti have been able to develop diaspora engagement institutions and implement policies to effectively utilize the Diaspora's contributions abroad for their own national development.
2.4.4 Engaging the Diaspora
Mendoza and Newland (2012) provide in-depth suggestions for engagement strategies that hone in on the ways in which the diaspora can be effective in their countries of destination and countries of origin, and how governments of both the home and host countries can collaborate to ensure the success of such strategies and reap mutual
benefits. However, there must be mutual understanding and involvement from all partners as governments of destination countries (for instance) can only follow through with cooperating with diaspora communities by assisting in projects on the home-front unless the corresponding governments in the countries of origin recognize and are willing to include that diaspora in its development projects.
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The IOM also notes that for diaspora engagement to be incorporated into national (and regional) policy, the process should involve, diaspora mapping, stakeholder mobilization and confidence building. The IOM and the Migration Policy Institute have been
instrumental in assisting countries with such practices. Guyana, Jamaica and Suriname have established partnerships with the International Organization of Migration to assist in this regard by staging workshops and training seminars that focus on the fundamental aspects of diaspora research (IOM, 2013).
Kilduff and Corley (1999) noted that although people leave their homeland, they are not severed from its culture. Not only has technology allowed expatriate communities to keep in contact with relatives in their respective countries, “…they often create communities of the displaced to help retain their sense of attachment and identity.” In this way diaspora communities can aspire to two different ways of cultural identity which would either (i) focus on the collective selves or (2) reflects the known similarities and
differences which “constitute ‘what we really are’ or rather since history has intervened”
(Stald:Tufte, 2002). Though this cultural memory may not be considered equal in monetary value as remittance flows in some circumstances, there is still value that must also be recognized. However, in order for the CARICOM diaspora to promote its culture and add to the multicultural milieu of Taiwan, the definition of culture and how the Caribbean Community and the diaspora relate to it must be defined.
2.5 Culture: A Discourse on Definition
Culture in today’s globalized community harnesses the creative energy and innovation to produce a plethora of opportunities for countries to utilize their own resources and cultural knowledge to promote their own distinct characteristics towards a more sustainable future. The Caribbean’s dynamic culture can be employed in a variety of areas with the overall goal of continuing to strengthen intra-CARICOM and inter-CARICOM relations.
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Birukou (2009) presents a discourse on several interpretations of culture in an attempt to produce a standardized concept. Culture is agreed to be “consisting of something that is shared/and/or learned by a group of people” (Birukou, et. al, 2009). What is “shared” is described as the behavior, ideas, beliefs, traditions and knowledge of the said group of people or agents.
UNESCO’s New Cultural Policy Agenda for Development and Mutual Understanding emphasizes the importance of culture as a medium for transparency, whereby creating an environment for joint communication and growth9. Ganga illustrates how cultural
expression, negotiating identities and building bridges are interrelated factors that “can help to build cohesive societies at ease with themselves, because it helps individuals negotiate with confidence amongst the multiple aspects of their identity, thereby preventing or reversing social disintegration.”
The overall goal is to strengthen the relationship between countries and societies as a prerequisite for more fulfilling dialogue and progress on matters that are of mutual relevance.
2.6 CARICOM and the Importance of Culture
CARICOM launched its Regional Cultural Policy initiative in 1997. The policy states how culture is an “intersecting continuum” which adapts and modifies itself based on the present while retaining the ideas, beliefs and practices that make life meaning to the everyday Caribbean man, woman and child (CARICOM Regional Cultural Policy, 1997).
Hon. Maxine Wilson, former Minister of Education, Youth and Culture in Jamaica emphasized that building the region’s identity is the facilitator for how Caribbean countries integrate and to what extent they will do so. Culture cannot be defined as a hierarchy, rather, it is made up of differences that have resulted from the people
9UNESCO, New Cultural policy agenda for Development and Mutual Understanding http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002147/214747e.pdf
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interacting with their environment and each other10. Understanding the definition of Caribbean identity takes into consideration the existence of the Caribbean person which stands as validation and representation of a national and regional heritage.
Underlined in the 1997 Cultural Policy is an explanation of what CARICOM Heads of State plan to achieve with regards to promoting the region’s culture. The policy describes Caribbean heritage as being made up of the “collective memory”; where “just as no individual can hope for a whole sense of self and authentic action in the world without his or her personal memory, so is it also futile for a people to hope for social harmony and true civilizing achievement without [it].” (CARICOM, 1997).
The cultural memory encompasses the multi-ethnic element of ethos “which upholds the value for people to have and maintain access to the cultures of their ancestors”11. The element of ethos can be seen through visual and artistic channels such as the Caribbean Festival or Carifesta.
2.6.1 Carifesta: Embodiment of Caribbean Cultural Expression and Cooperation
Carifesta or the Caribbean Festival of the Arts is a primary tool of the Caribbean Community to advance its foreign policy goals and promote functional co-operation in the human and social development of the region12.
The first installment of what is now Carifesta was held in Puerto Rico in 1952. Jamaica and Guyana were the only countries of the present day CARICOM represented. In 1972, under the theme “The Artist in Society with special reference to The Third World”, Carifesta I made its official debut in Guyana. The theme highlighted the people and
10 Culture in the Future of the Caribbean Community, Hon. Maxine Henry-Wilson, Minister of Education, Youth and Culture, Jamaica, CARICOM Distinguished Lecture Series, 2003
11 CARICOM Secretariat, Culture in the Future of the Caribbean Community by Hon. Maxine Wilson, http://www.caricom.org/jsp/speeches/30anniversary_lecture_3_henrywilson.jsp
12 CARICOM Secretariat, CARIFESTA: An Embodiment of Caribbean Integration.
http://www.caricom.org/jsp/projects/uwicaricomproject/carifesta_embodiment_integration.jsp
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motions put forth at two Caribbean Artists and Writers conferences in 1966 and 1970, respectively. What was discussed was the need for these same artists and writers to share, exchange, educate, support and carouse in the diverse historical, ethnic and cultural spectrum that gave life and meaning to the development of their various art forms13. Shortly after CARICOM was formed in 1972, Carifesta was officially declared as a celebration of the region’s rich and flamboyant culture with the aim of fostering unity and promoting Caribbean culture regionally and globally. Moreover, CARICOM States have seen the emergence of new outlets for cultural expression such as dance companies, schools of music and performing arts companies, with the emergence of new media such as film, animation, fashion and print. Acknowledging and encouraging these timely
motions put forth at two Caribbean Artists and Writers conferences in 1966 and 1970, respectively. What was discussed was the need for these same artists and writers to share, exchange, educate, support and carouse in the diverse historical, ethnic and cultural spectrum that gave life and meaning to the development of their various art forms13. Shortly after CARICOM was formed in 1972, Carifesta was officially declared as a celebration of the region’s rich and flamboyant culture with the aim of fostering unity and promoting Caribbean culture regionally and globally. Moreover, CARICOM States have seen the emergence of new outlets for cultural expression such as dance companies, schools of music and performing arts companies, with the emergence of new media such as film, animation, fashion and print. Acknowledging and encouraging these timely