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corpus is used for learning in ESL or EFL context, the situation is totally different from using DDL to learn first language. It might become less efficient. This is the reason why in most articles about DDL, the participants are chosen from high proficiency level. Since very little DDL research ventures on low achievers in EFL learning context, this present study tries to investigate the effect of using corpus-based DDL on low achievers’
synonymous vocabulary learning, compared to traditional teaching.
2.2 Concordance lines and Data-driven learning
Concordance lines have been used as the teaching material in the classroom since the 1980s as part of the “data-driven learning” (DDL) proposed by Tim Johns (Sinclair, 1991). It is widely recognized as providing a fast and powerful means for learners to become more aware of the language and the patterns of its various grammatical features, words, and lexical patterns (Tribble & Jones, 1990; Sinclair, 1991; Mindt, 1997; Fox, 1998; J. Willis, 1998; Honston, 2002; O’Keefe et al., 2007). An important effect of concordance lines is that they enable learners to take a more objective look at the
language. They are like ‘tiny snapshots’ (Willis, 1998) of a linguistic landscape. Hunston (2002: 170) also noted that, “DDL involves setting up situations in which students can answer questions about language by studying corpus data in the form of concordance lines or sentences”.
Johns (1997) points out that a concordance can bring to the class abundant
authentic language examples that can be studied and exploited in many ways by learners, so that the learners can see how the target word collocates with other words, which grammar patterns will be followed, which preposition the target word goes with, and so on (Willis, 1990).
Furthermore, using concordance line as the teaching material may be a more
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learner-centered methodology. Johns (1994:101) refers to learners who are studying by concordance line as so-called “ language detectives ” whose task is to discover the rules or patterns of the language they are focusing on by finding, identifying and inferring these linguistic implication from the context (Serkan, 2011). Learners can be motivated to discover new meanings and to examine collocations because language learning is more likely to occur when adequate examples are noticed and processed by learners (Cobb, 2003).
As for learner motivation, Tribble and Jones (1990) claim that concordance line can activate learner motivation. They believe that “ the fact that the source material for
exercises is drawn from real life rather than concocted by teachers to increase motivation, as it gives learners immediate contact with the target language in use” (p. 38). However, Tomlinson (1990) warns instructors against assuming that all of their students are “ready and willing” to learn any particular teaching points chosen for presentation. Though it proves to be an effective teaching methodology, many people do not believe concordance lines are suitable for lower or beginning level students, especially for weak and remedial beginning students (Willis, 1998). The teacher has to compile and tailor the concordance lines before actual teaching in the classroom. Manual concordance lines have become an important teaching material when the teacher wants to teach through corpus-based approach. Figure 2.2 shows an example of the manual concordance lines of the target word ‘people’. Learners can read the context with each target word in each concordance line and then generate the usage and collocation by themselves.
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1 a three-month contract with ACET, is looking forward to caring AIDS. Letters to the Editor Letters
people with for HIV/
2 To reduce the number of new HIV infections by giving young AIDS. AIDS Care Education
people the facts about
3 , under the auspices of the United Nations. At least nine
between November 1990 and January 1991 by death squads linked
people were killed
4 may be POCs. Among the possible prisoners of conscience are 37 up to 20 years' imprisonment for their involvement in
people sentenced to
5 justice. PRISONER LETTER WRITING CAMPAIGN. Each of the follows is a prisoner of conscience. Each has been
people whose story
Figure 2.2 Example ‘people’ for manual concordance lines (extracted from BNC web Corpus)
With manual concordances, learners will have the chance to not only ‘notice’ the language in each text they encounter, but also ‘recognize’ the word they have seen it before (Allen, 2012). The rationale of manual concordance lines is like the ‘spiral structure’ in the textbook development. The intertexual nature of course books will also allow learners who choose to develop it to break through a new language awareness and increase the sharpness of their learning curve. Since, a good general English course book will recycle important language from one lesson to another; manual concordance lines can serve as the same purpose. As Willis (1998:63) observes that manual concordance lines, as a learner-centered methodology, is ideal for mixed level class, since it allows students to work at their own level, in their own time and in their own way. Manual concordance will not only help learners process new language more effectively, but also produce the language repertoire more easily.
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