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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter is divided into three sections. The first section elaborates how data-driven learning (DDL) is applied in classrooms, using consciousness-raising activities and concordance lines as the teacher-made teaching materials. Secondly, some studies related to the impact of data-driven learning and teaching also reviewed in terms of three teaching perspectives: vocabulary, collocation, and grammar learning. In the third section, some local and international studies regarding synonym and near-synonym applied in English learning and teaching are explored.
2.1 Data-driven learning (DDL) in a classroom
Applied Linguists working on technology-related issues have for some time noted the relevance of technological changes in the digital global economy for TESOL (e.g., Cummins, 2000; Warschaucer, 2000; Chapelle 2001). In the area of language teaching and learning, the potential applications of electronic corpora, the electronic authentic language databases available on the Internet or stored in personal computers (Serkan, 2011), in language teaching and learning have receiveconsiderable attention in recent years. It is also possible for teachers and learners to access corpora by themselves (Gaskell& Cobb, 2004; Scott& Tribble, 2006; Boulton, 2010) to name but a few.
The English language teaching (ELT) profession is currently undergoing what has been labeled by some as a major paradigm shift (Woodward, 1996). Starting from the mid 1980’s (Swain, 1985), some began to question many aspects of Communicative Language
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Teaching (CLT). Since then, many more have gotten together to express the idea
concerned with the direction that the position of CLT will be taken. Later on, the idea of DDL was proposed by Johns (1991) as an innovative approach to the implementation of concordancing materials, which lists all the occurrences of a word in a text with enough co-text in each line in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). The readers can tell how the word is used and where it was used. According to Johns (1994), the language learner using this approach is essentially a research worker whose learning is driven by access to authentic linguistic data.
Batstone (1995) claims that DDL is a pedagogic continuum (see figure 2.1) from product to process. It has the advantage of product approach since the specific aspects of language are presented to the learners by multiple exposures within contexts.
Simultaneously, it offers a completed process approach because DDL promotes creativity and self-discovery learning among learners. While DDL is a very new methodology, DDL appears to utilize the strengths of both product and process approaches to teaching
grammar and collocation successfully (Hadley, 2004).
Manipulation Regulation Abdication
PRODUCT PROCESS
Language Data-Driven Learning Language is Pre-selected Authentic Language discovered generated by for the learner by learner for improved communication the learner
Figure 2.1 A pedagogic continuum from product to process grammar learning through DDL. Adapted from Batstone (1995).
DDL approach suggests that grammar and collocation learning should consist Pedagogic Continuum
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largely of consciousness-raising activities rather than teaching rules (Willis & Willis, 1996). Consciousness-raising (CR) is defined by Rutherford and Smith (1988:108) as “the deliberate attempt to draw the learner’s attention specifically to the formal properties of the target language.” Kennedy (2003) also holds the similar view, and explains that the second vocabulary acquisition process as depending on the consciousness raising and learners should be exposed to authentic language materials as much as possible. Moreover, Schmidt (1990) argues that it is necessary to ‘notice’ features of the target language at the beginning in learning process. In Ellis’ (2003:163) study, he also claims that
‘consciousness-raising constitutes an approach to grammar teaching which is compatible with current thinking about how learners acquire L2 grammar.’ If the teacher can place students in the position of researchers, this will increase learners’ self-esteem and confidence (Johns, 1994; Willis & Willis, 1996; Johns, 2002).
Data-driven learning, a “research-then-theory” method which can be used to study grammar and collocation, is just like the consciousness-raising activity in that
language learners start with a question, and then come to their conclusions after analyzing the corpora with a concordance program. Hence, the teaching material has become an important element when the teacher wants to cultivate learners’ linguistic awareness.
Recently, scholars who support DDL have written an increasing amount of material to show how data from corpora and concordances can be used in the classroom. The results all indicate that learners have a big improvement after corpus-based teaching instructions (Tribble & Jones, 1990; John, 1994; Kettemann, 1995; Tribble, 1996). In these teaching materials, concordance plays an important role in spite of the different teaching. Teaching and learning purpose is to learn grammar patterns and collocations through the
concordance line. More research will be necessary to determine if learning actually takes place from a DDL approach. If it could be shown the DDL approach is not only engaging
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but also effective in language learning, it would be a major step toward establishing it in Taiwan EFL classroom. This study uses data-driven learning to investigate the learning effectiveness of learners.
There is a controversial issue in the relationship between data-driven learning and learners’ language proficiency. Some scholars think DDL is helpful only for high
achievers in learning English vocabulary, while some claim DDL helps low achievers too.
For high achievers, the proponents of DDL take it as a task-based learning which requires good language awareness to find patterns and rules of teaching materials
presented to them (Touraj & Zahra, 2012). Thus, it is claimed that DDL is only useful for the learners at advanced levels and a lot of training is essential for its application. Johns (1986) pointed out that DDL is appropriate for the learners who are adults and have high motivation and intelligence. Similarly, in 2008, Boulton surveyed fifty empirical DDL studies and noted that only four were conducted with beginning and low level studies. A lot of research on DDL reveals that this type of learning has been used for the learners at advanced level. Boulton (2008:39) also noted that, “current research encourages the belief that DDL is only useful for advanced learners in a computer laboratory, and with the researchers devoting considerable time to developing corpora and training learners in small groups”. The reason why most previous DDL studies focus on high proficiency learners might be that the participants were chosen according to the researchers’
preference.
Although there is a tendency towards thinking that DDL is only useful for the learners at advanced proficiency level, some investigations present evidence that DDL is helpful for the low proficiency level students as well. Sealy and Thompson (2007) proved that even primary school students can take advantage of corpora in their native language without a higher order thinking skills. However, Braun (2007) pointed out that when
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corpus is used for learning in ESL or EFL context, the situation is totally different from using DDL to learn first language. It might become less efficient. This is the reason why in most articles about DDL, the participants are chosen from high proficiency level. Since very little DDL research ventures on low achievers in EFL learning context, this present study tries to investigate the effect of using corpus-based DDL on low achievers’
synonymous vocabulary learning, compared to traditional teaching.