Coral reefs in Taiwan: threats and challenges

Taiwan has a coastline of circa 1,566 km and total coral reef area of 940 km²,¹¹⁸ with a high density of coral reefs on the southern tip and on nearby smaller islands in the west (Penghu Island) and southeast (Green Island, Orchid Island) and with sporadic occurrences on the eastern and northern coastline. Coral reef larvae enter Taiwan’s coastal areas from the warm Kuroshio Current that flows northward to Tokyo Bay.¹¹⁹ Taiwan has a reported 300 species of coral reefs, ¹²⁰ yet their degradation is in line with global trajectories. The 32 sites regularly monitored by the Taiwanese Coral Reef Society show a wide variation in hard coral cover: whereas two areas have 64 percent and 68 percent of coral cover, respectively, 18 sites have a coral cover lower that 30 percent.¹²¹ This section will delineate the main local threats and challenges that the coral reefs of Taiwan are faced with.

The general trend of decline amongst Taiwanese coral reefs is the result of multiple threats and challenges. These include land-based pollution, inadequate wastewater treatment and sewage discharge, expulsion of chemical and thermal discharge from nuclear power plants (NPP), overfishing and destructive fishing practices, unsustainable tourism and damage by recreational divers, as well as natural disturbances.

Firstly, anthropogenic pressure in the form of land-based pollution is a widespread problem affecting the coastal waters around Taiwan. Terrestrial runoff of sediment, pollution, and nutrients into nearshore watersheds is lowering coastal water quality and marine ecosystem health. Coastal development spurred by growing populations and economic incentives, including aquaculture, agriculture, and resort building has led to high soil erosion, leading to frequent landslides and sediment flows, with monsoon and typhoon seasons exacerbating the process.¹²² Moreover, this rapid economic development has not been accompanied by investments of similar degree in areas of environmental protection. Beyond significantly undermining coral reef health,

118 Summary Report for MPAs in Taiwan. Accessed 6 March 2017

119 Clive Wilkinson, 2008, Status of coral reefs in the world: 2008, Townsville, Australia: Global Coral Reef Monitoring network and Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, p. 144.

120 Ibid.

121 Tadashi Kimrua et al., 2004, ‘Status of Coral Reefs in East and North Asia: China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea and Japan,’ in Status of coral reefs of the world: 2004, ed. C. Wilkinson, vol. 1, Townsville, Australia: Australian Institute of Marine Science, p. 280.

122 Ibid, p. 151.

this negligence to develop the environmental infrastructure also creates a bottleneck for future growth, a systematic and institutional issue that will be discussed further in the paper.

A prime example of industrial development threatening Taiwan’s coral reef is the case of Toayuan in northwestern Taiwan. In the coastal waters off the Taoyuan coast, a unique coral species (Polycyathus chaishanensis) that is only found in Taiwan has been discovered. These algae reefs are listed as a first-category endangered species by the Council of Agriculture. Yet, CPC Corporation, a Taiwanese state-owned petroleum, natural gas, and gasoline company, plans to build a natural gas terminal in Taoyuan’s Datan Borough (台灣), which would put significant pressure on the already-sparse and endangered corals. According to Local Union director-general Pan Chong-Cheng (潘忠 政), these reefs should be cherished and protected as much as the GBR in Australia.¹²³ Despite a proposal previously submitted to list the zone as a conservation area, the council and the Taoyuan City Government have not taken further action. On the government’s side, investing more in the natural gas project is part of the nation’s strategy to lessen reliance on nuclear power, for it would replace the existing four electric generators at the Tatan Power Plant.¹²⁴ This case illustrates the problem of managing incentive dynamics and indicates a lack of cohesion in institutional strength, as economic incentives can easily overpower existing protocols of other governmental departments. Thus, without strong and integrative institutional planning, authority, and transparency, the stakeholders and the local communities involved cannot and will not have the opportunity to evaluate the best course of action.

Moreover, present-day Taiwan is persistently battling with sewage pollution as a result of improper wastewater treatment and a lack of water recycling. Generally speaking, major cities are connected to sewage treatment plants, such as the Bali Wastewater Treatment Plant that treats an average of 1.2 million tons of wastewater daily from the 6.4 million residents of Keelung, Taipei, and New Taipei City.¹²⁵ However, the percentage of residents covered differs drastically across the island. The

123 Chia-Nan Lin, 2017, ‘Gas terminal could threaten coral: biologist,’ Taipei Times, 24 June 2017.

Accessed 26 June 2017. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/06/24/2003673191

124 Ibid.

125 Sean Lin, 2017, ‘Taipei sewage system office says pollution limited,’ Taipei Times, 6 April 2017.

Accessed 12 May 2017. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2017/04/06/2003668158

main problem lies in the peripheries of the capital and beyond, where development has not been as heavily concentrated. The 2017 Ministry of Interior statistics show that, whereas 81 percent of the population of Taipei City is served by wastewater treatment plants, the coverage for Taoyuan City stands at 51 percent, Taichung City 41 percent, Hualien County 36 percent, and Taitung County 11 percent, with the national average barely crossing the halfway threshold at 54 percent.¹²⁶ As can be observed, sewage pollution is a serious and prevalent contaminant to Taiwan’s waters. This point is further elucidated by the Long-Term Ecological Research program, which monitored anthropogenic impacts on the coral reefs of Kenting National Park in southern Taiwan.

The results illustrated that the embayment was polluted by sewage discharge, which, coupled with high nutrient and suspended sediment levels, had led to algal growth and the smothering of shallow water corals.¹²⁷ Overall, sediment runoff and sewage discharge are major issues affecting the health of the coral reef ecosystem.

Secondly, thermal discharge from nuclear power plants (NPP) is affecting coral reefs in a direct and rapid way. Nuclear power makes up 19 percent of the total power generation in Taiwan, the third largest source after coal (28 percent) and gas (24 percent); renewable energy, in contrast, makes up only two percent (2014).¹²⁸ There are currently three NPPs in operation, two in northern Taiwan and one in Kenting National Park in the south. Construction of the fourth NPP was delayed numerous times due to safety concerns,¹²⁹ internal conflicts,¹³⁰ political conflicts and calls for local and national referendums,¹³¹ the discovery of aboriginal artifacts at the construction site,¹³²

126 ‘The Sewage Treatment Rate,’ Construction and Planning Agency, Ministry of Interior. Accessed 12 May 2017.

http://www.cpami.gov.tw/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10808:the-sewage-treatment-rate&catid=17:sewer-engineering&Itemid=42

127 Pi-Jen Liu et al., 2012, ‘Impacts of human activities on coral reef ecosystems of southern Taiwan: A long-term study,’ Marine Pollution Bulletin 64:6, June 2012, p. 1129.

128 ‘Change for Power 2015,’ Taiwan Power Company Sustainability Report. Accessed 14 May 2017.

http://www.taipower.com.tw

129 Yu-Tzu Chiu, 1999, ‘Activists ask for delay of nuke plant,’ Taipei Times, 29 October 1999.

Accessed 14 May 2017. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/local/archives/1999/10/29/0000008580

130 Chia-Ling Tang, 2011, ‘Taipower must pay US$29m: court,’ Taipei Times, 10 March 2011.

Accessed 14 May 2017. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2011/03/10/2003497827

131 Chris Wang, 2014, ‘Annette Lu vows pursuit of anti-plant referendum,’ Taipei Times, 16 July 2014.

Accessed 14 May 2017. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2014/07/16/2003595238

132 Shelley Huang, 2010, ‘Aboriginal artefacts found at site of nuclear plant,’ Taipei Times, 28 April 2010. Accessed 14 May 2017.

http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2010/04/28/2003471695

anti-nuclear protests at the wake of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan,¹³³ amongst others. In 2014, the fourth NPP was finally put on hold as the issue of nuclear waste and nuclear safety versus putting heavier focus on developing renewable energy is still up to debate. Meanwhile, maintenance costs for the sealed NPP is costing the nation approximately US$30.64 million annually.¹³⁴ At the same time, nuclear waste dump sites continue to pose a problem, creating disputes between various stakeholders and undermining marine heath.

Thirdly, the low abundance or complete absence of commercially important fish species at all sites indicate severe over-fishing. Three decades ago, Taiwan’s shipment of fish was 340,000 tons, a number that declined by half to just 170,000 in 2014.¹³⁵ Similarly, the past thirty years witnessed a significant decrease in the number of coastal fish species, from 120 to circa 30 in northern Taiwan alone.¹³⁶ Indeed, the overall lack of large fish species and the low densities of certain fish species (such as the butterfly fish) all suggest a strong demand from seafood markets and the aquarium trade.¹³⁷ At the same time, the low level of herbivores acts as another factor responsible for the increasing growth of algae, destabilizing the reef environment.

Furthermore, destructive fishing practices pose another threat to marine environments. In October 2015, the European Union issued a yellow card to Taiwan for not taking sufficient measures to combat illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing.¹³⁸ The report adds that Taiwan also fails to systematically comply with Regional Fisheries Management Organization (RFMO) obligations. ¹³⁹ These shortcomings include, inter alia, persistent shark finning, illegal tuna fishing, destructive fishing practices such as excessive bottom trawling, as well as insufficient

133 Rich Chang, 2011, ‘Groups call for nuclear referendum,’ Taipei Times, 12 April 2011. Accessed 14 May 2017. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2011/04/12/2003500553

134 ‘No plans to recommence work on Fourth Nuclear Power Plant, says premier,’ The China Post, 4 June 2016. Accessed 14 May 2017.

http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/national/national-news/2016/06/04/468294/No-plans.htm

135 Clarissa Wei, 2016, ‘Taiwan's Last Traditional Fishing Village Is Running Out of Fish,’ Munchies, 2 April 2016. Accessed 13 May 2017. https://munchies.vice.com/en_us/article/taiwans-last-traditional-fishing-village-is-running-out-of-fish

136 Ibid.

137 Wilkinson 2008:150.

138 Linda van der Horst, 2016, “Taiwan's Illegal Fishing Is ‘Out of Control,’” The Diplomat, 14 April 2016. Accessed 12 May 2017. http://thediplomat.com/2016/04/taiwans-illegal-fishing-is-out-of-control/

139 ‘Taiwan works to avoid EU red card,’ 12 April 2016. World Fishing & Aquaculture. Accessed 12 May 2017. http://www.worldfishing.net/news101/regional-focus/taiwan-works-to-avoid-eu-red-card

monitoring and enforcement. Since then, the Taiwanese government has begun to take measures to ramify their fishing laws to align with EU requirements and the viewpoint of international sustainability of fishery resources. Although the nation may have avoided the issuing of a red card by the EU and a consequent ban on Taiwanese seafood exports, the passing of new laws and amendments is still in the making.¹⁴⁰

Taken from a different perspective, the issue of overfishing is in part further exacerbated by the traditional mentality that Taiwan has a seafood culture, but not an ocean one.¹⁴¹ As a result, little has been done to enforce existing environmental protection laws or recover fish stocks despite the relatively large dependence on seafood produce. Although this is not an uncommon occurrence in sea-dependent nations, it nevertheless should act as a strong incentive on both the governmental and local level to commit more resources towards enforcing sustainable fishing.

Furthermore, unsustainable tourism and marine recreation is adding more stress to reefs. Taiwan has snorkeling destinations all around the coast as well as on neighboring islands. The diverse coral reefs at Kenting, Green Island, and Orchid Island make the spots in particular popular for snorkeling and scuba diving. However, direct contact with reefs by recreational divers may severely deplete a reef. Such threats can be caused by stepping or standing on corals, breaking and damaging them (such as the so-called ‘coral graffiti,’ which involves divers scratching their names in living corals),¹⁴² treading in shallow water and stirring up large clouds of sediments, leaving garbage, as well as anchoring diving boats within a coral reef, thus oftentimes destroying them beyond repair. A lack of an official sewage system and improper disposal of waste into the waters from nearby hotels exacerbates the problem of unsustainable tourism. ‘Rampant’ tourism is clearly evident on Xiaoliuqiu Island, a coral island located at the southwest coast of Taiwan. Despite its relatively small size of 6.8 km², there was a record 400,000 visitors to Xiaoliuqiu in 2014 alone, posing a large strain on the already-overexploited shores.

140 Su-Ming Yang and Evelyn Kao, 2016, ‘Taiwan changes fisheries law to avoid EU ban on seafood exports,’ Focus Taiwan, 15 May 2016. Accessed 12 May 2017.

http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aeco/201605150009.aspx

141 Appendix 3 (Interview with CPA).

142 ‘Sustainable Under Water,’ Secore. Accessed 15 May 2017. http://www.secore.org/site/our-work/detail/sustainable-under-water.31.html

Additionally, coral collection for souvenir purposes is another damaging activity. It can take up to 10,000 years for a coral reef to form from a group of larvae, and even ten times longer for barrier reefs and atolls to fully form.¹⁴³ Thus, harvesting coral reefs to sell as decorative items is highly destructive as the replacement of a collected coral by a new one is a process that can take several decades, if suitable conditions permit. Overall, irresponsible tourism is one of the most pressing threats to coral reefs in Taiwan. The density of tourists along the southern coast is also in part due to Taiwan’s geography: as the Tropic of Cancer runs through the center, the island is divided into tropical and subtropical climate zones in the south and north, respectively.

As such, whilst winters in the north are cool and rainy, the south experiences a warm climate all year-round, making it a popular holiday destination. Thus, proper management of tourism is an important issue underlying marine conservation.

Moreover, occurrences such as diseases and natural disasters are additional factors behind coral reef degradation. For example, the underwater ecosystem of Green Island was covered with a black-colored sponge Terpios hoshinota, also known as the

‘black disease’ known for smothering and killing corals and other sessile organisms.¹⁴⁴ The sponge is an efficient competitor of corals for space and it is known to thrive in polluted and stressed coral reef ecosystems.¹⁴⁵ Thus, local threats such as untreated sewage and garbage in the coastal waters of Green Island may be one factor behind the diseased coral. Furthermore, natural phenomena such as typhoons can cause damage to coral reefs. This is especially true for Taiwan, whose shorelines are frequently battered by typhoons from May to October, leaving corals broken or covered with sediment.¹⁴⁶ Evidence of the afore-mentioned threats to coral reefs in Taiwan are visible in the 2012 analysis of the coral community composition at Wanlitung (萬里桐) Reef.

Located in the south of Taiwan along the west coast of the Hengchun Peninsula, Wanlitung Reef reportedly contains 280 species of corals. However, the structure of this benthic community has changed considerably as a result of various disturbances,

143 ‘Corals,’ NOAA Ocean Service Education. Accessed 15 May 2017.

http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral04_reefs.html

144 N. J. de Voogd et al., 2013, ‘The coral-killing sponge Terpios hoshinota invades Indonesia,’ Coral Reefs 32:3, p. 755. Accessed 15 May 2017. doi:10.1007/s00338-013-1030-4

145 G. Plucer-Rosario, 1987, ‘The effect of substratum on the growth of Terpios, an encrusting sponge which kills corals,’ Coral Reefs 5:4, p. 197. Accessed 15 May 2017. doi:10.1007/BF00300963

146 Wilkinson 2008:154.

including typhoons, bleaching, overfishing, pollution, and coastal development.

Consequently, the coral reefs have become less ecologically diverse.¹⁴⁷ The results of the 2012 analysis depict a drastic drop in hard coral cover, from 47.5 percent in 1985 to 17.7 percent in 2010, with corals from the genera Acropora and Montipora affected the most. Whereas the coverage of Montipora dropped from 15 percent in 1985 to 1.28 percent in 2010, the once-abundant Acropora has by 2010 been virtually completely extirpated (in comparison, the 1985 the cover of Acropora was at 23 percent).¹⁴⁸ Simultaneously, the macro-algal cover has increased from 11.3 percent in 2003 to 28.5 percent in 2010, whilst the number of some corals such as from the Faviidae family and Heliopora coerulea are comparable to their 1985 status. Other types, such as the Poritidae coral family, have experienced slight increases in abundance [Figure 9]. This

“shift towards a depauperate coral assemblage dominated by macroalgae”¹⁴⁹ shows that the Wanlitung Reef has become less ecologically diverse, and as a consequence is less resilient to ecological and anthropogenic disturbances.

Figure 9: Distribution of coral species¹⁵⁰

Finally, one key aspect that needs to be acknowledged is the South China Sea dispute. The South China Sea is a marginal sea in the western Pacific Ocean. Eight countries have their borders on the sea, including the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam. The area’s strategic location and vast potential of natural resources, as well as the estimated

$5.3 trillion annual trade passing through it, have resulted in a serious territorial dispute

147 Chao-Yang Kuo et al., 2012, ‘Recurrent Disturbances and the Degradation of Hard Coral Communities in Taiwan,’ PLoS ONE 7(8): e44364. Accessed 11 May 2017.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044364

148 Ibid.

149 Ibid.

150 Ibid.

with claimants contesting their rights for control in the region.¹⁵¹ One island in particular, Taiping Island, is claimed by Taiwan¹⁵² as well as the PRC, the Philippines, and Vietnam. The contested island is rich in coral reef coverage, yet due to the multinational strife, any form of monitoring, managing, or protection activities are impossible without collaboration and stable governance, and may be escalate into further conflict between the nations as monetary incentives will overshadow coastal management benefits.

In summary, coral reefs are extremely susceptible to a number of factors, and the cumulative impact of multiple local threats is undermining the health of Taiwan’s coral reefs. Stressors stemming from land-based pollution are a widespread problem on numerous fronts: firstly, sedimentation is lowering coastal water quality, weakening the resilience of coral reefs. The contribution of sediment to watersheds stems from anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, road construction, storm water runoff, chemical spills, as well as high fertilizer and pesticide usages. Sediments can physically smother and kill corals and other benthic organisms.

Moreover, chemical contaminants may lead to excessive levels of nutrients in bodies of water. These chemical invasions may strengthen one group of organisms over another, destabilizing the fragile balance necessary for coral growth. Indeed, a burst of certain algae or seaweeds on the seafloor may outcompete corals for resources, leading to reef degradation.

In addition, pollution in the form of sewage waste and thermal discharge are affecting marine ecosystems in a direct and rapid manner. Improper wastewater treatment is a prevalent, yet unresolved issue underlying the infrastructure of Taiwan.

Inadequate waste dump sites is another factor undermining coral reef health.

Deteriorating marine conditions are further exacerbated by rising water temperatures as a result of thermal discharge from nuclear power plants.

151 CFR, Global Conflict Tracker, 2016, ‘Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea.’ Accessed 11 June 2016. http://www.cfr.org/global/global-conflict-tracker/p32137#!/conflict/territorial-disputes-in-the-south-china-sea

152 See: Map showing the official administrative divisions of Taiwan’s claimed territories (1951), in:

Kun-hui Ku, 2012, ‘Rights to Recognition: Minorities and Indigenous Politics in Emerging Taiwan Nationalism,’ Taiwan Since Martial Law: Society, Culture, Politics, Economics, ed. David Blundell, Berkeley: University of California, & Taipei: National Taiwan University Press, p. 111.

Direct damage to coral reefs due to unsustainable coastal development and reclamation activities is yet another conundrum. Direct construction on top of coral reef areas, the cutting down of natural barriers that protect coral reefs (such as mangrove forests), as well as high soil erosion and subsequent landslides and terrestrial runoff are

Direct damage to coral reefs due to unsustainable coastal development and reclamation activities is yet another conundrum. Direct construction on top of coral reef areas, the cutting down of natural barriers that protect coral reefs (such as mangrove forests), as well as high soil erosion and subsequent landslides and terrestrial runoff are