6. Content Analysis of Chinese Civics Textbooks 1 Presentation
6.2.1 Political Knowledge
6.2.1.3 Democratic Process
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five, make it our lifelong career, and render service to the nation.”35
Another way that patriotism appears in the text is through appeals to ethnic nationalism.
As has already been noted, descriptions of the glorious achievements of China and the Chinese people appear in several different lessons throughout the sample. A typical example of this appears in the lesson entitled ‘Our Nation and People.’ The lesson begins with the story of China’s political transition, from dictatorship to democracy. This is followed by descriptions of how vast China is, with abundant natural resources and a glorious history, along with the obligatory mention of China’s great contribution to the rest of the world. The Chinese people are described as having innate and lofty morals, a strong national consciousness, and the ability to harmoniously unite many different groups under the banner of one nation. The closing statement “From a magnificent people, a magnificent nation is formed” hammers home the point.36
These lessons tie in with the lessons on obedience. That is, students are being presented with the idea that following the government’s instructions is not only the behavior of a law-abiding citizen, but it will bring China wealth and power and restore it to its rightful place in the world. A patriotic citizen is thus a person who behaves in this way, putting the country before himself.
6.2.1.3 Democratic Process
While in Table Q lessons on democratic process account for more than 7% of lessons, this figure is misleading. This is because the lessons contained in Civics, Vol. 1 (1948) and Civics Textbook, Vol. 1 (1957) are nearly identical in terms of content. These lessons are quite interesting, if only because the KMT ideological promotion is not so heavy-handed. The lessons teach students about forming organizations, group activities, and democratic meeting procedures and etiquette. In Civics, Vol. 1 (1948), the lesson is told from the point of view of students as they start a club at school. The focus though is not
35 Civics, Vol. 3 (1948), 27.
36 Civics Textbook, Vol. 3 (1959), 2.
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on what the students do, but how they go about doing it, hence the category label of
‘Democratic Process.’ These lessons seem to present a microcosm of political theater.
However, the focus on discipline and procedure familiarizes students with the rules of the game so to speak, but doesn’t teach them what the game is really about, thus reinforcing the idea that a good citizen is an obedient citizen who respects authority.
In the lessons many details are discussed, including rules, the roles of leadership and members, electing group members to said roles, how to conduct a democratic debate, etc.
The way the content is presented though emphasizes knowing one’s place within the group and adherence to procedure. The following exchange between the teacher and students in Civics, Vol. 1 (1948) is a typical example of this:
“ ‘Since you have a definite purpose, forming a study group at school and doing research together, (letting other students join) is not only possible, but also necessary. I think that you don’t need to limit your group to classmates from our grade. You can make public the recruitment of members and allow all classmates who are interested in the natural sciences to join. However, when there are many people it can easily become disorderly, so you must have a sound organization. The people who lead and the people who are being led, both must earnestly take responsibility and work together. Only then can the group develop.’ Teacher Hua earnestly advised.
‘ Teacher Hua, we have already gotten everything organized. Li Hua, Sun Zhong Guo, and Wu Xiu Yun have been elected as council members, and Li Hua is a permanent member of the council. In carrying out all meeting affairs, we have adopted the spirit of the System of Democratic Centralism. Ordinarily we conduct research freely or discuss with each other, but during meetings every member has the opportunity to contribute their opinion. If a majority of members pass a proposal, then it must be carried out and members also must comply with it.’
‘Ah, but you still need to pay attention to the issue of group discipline.’
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‘We have already passed some general rules and a joint pledge which everyone must abide by. There are also specific rules regarding the rights and duties of members.’
‘Great! Keep up the good work!’ ”37
From the conversation it is clear that order is one of the primary concerns of the teacher.
In addition, having a sound organization is more or less equated to everyone having a role and knowing their place. Roles which carry authority, such as the position of chairman, are also presented. This is a reflection of the KMT power structure, in which the chairman of the party (i.e. Chiang Kai-Shek) is the real authority. Thus the school setting serves as a microcosm of society. In the science club at school the chairman is the authority figure that students can identify with, and in society the chairman of the KMT is the authority figure that citizens identify with. The lesson entitled ‘Types of Meetings and Procedures’ further emphasizes the importance of authority figures. In this lesson, all of the students hold a meeting, presided over by the chairman, a student named Li Hua, who is described as possessing the best leadership ability. After this brief introduction though, Li Hua is not referred to by name in the lesson. He is only referred to as ‘the chairman.’
The following passage from the lesson provides an example of how the texts cultivate obedience and respect for authority:
「主席報告完了，接著討論簡章和個同學提出的議案。個同學先後得到主席許 可，依次起立發言，秩序一點不紊亂。發言人說明提案，主席立即徵求附議，
主席再把提案向大家報告，請大家討論。」
“The chairman finished his speech, and then discussed the general rules and the proposals suggested by each classmate. One after the other each classmate received permission from the chairman, and in succession they stood up and made a statement, and the proceedings were not in the least bit disorderly. After students
37 Civics, Vol. 1 (1948), 14-15.
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finished explaining their proposals, the chairman immediately called for a second to the motion. If someone seconded the motion, the chairman then again informed everyone about the proposal and called for everyone to discuss it.”38
In just a few short sentences, the chairman appears several times. Indirectly, this may give students that the idea that democratic process invariably must have a powerful leader who controls proceedings. While the abovementioned lessons are from the 1948 edition of the Civics series, the lessons on democratic process in Civics Textbook, Vol. 1 (1957) are almost identical in terms of content. The main difference is that the content is not presented in the form of student-teacher dialogue. There are no characters in the lesson, and instead correct meeting procedure is presented in list format. Either way, the conception of democratic process in the texts is slightly distorted. However, this is likely intentional, and the emphasis on obedience and respect for authority makes it clear how the KMT expected good citizens to engage in politics.