Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Educational Needs of Mildly Mentally Impaired Students
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Chapter 2 Literature Review
This chapter will give an overview of the worldwide context of the “who” (mildly mentally impaired students), “where” (secondary educational program setting), the “what”
(secondary education curriculum), and the “how” / “when” (individualizing education). This will be followed by a description of the Taiwanese and Dutch general context, the
educational context, and the context of the mildly mentally impaired student population in both these countries‟ secondary education setting.
2.1 Educational Needs of Mildly Mentally Impaired Students
While in international researches, the term „retardation‟ “remains the most commonly used referent at this time” (Polloway, 2006, p. 184), the term „impairment‟ is also widely used. The researcher has opted to use the term „impairment‟ as he believes it to have less negative associations than „retardation‟.
Mental impairment “generally refers to delayed intellectual growth and is manifested in inappropriate or immature reactions to one‟s environment and below average performance in the academic, psychological, physical, linguistic, and social domains” (Patton, Payne, &
Beirne-Smith, 1990, p. 33). Individuals with mild mental impairment “demonstrate adaptive behaviour and intellectual functioning at the upper end of the [mental impairment]
continuum” (Patton et al., 1990, p. 198).
The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities has been the leading organization in defining mental impairment (Greenspan, 1999). This organization formerly assessed (currently this assessment is still most often used worldwide) a mildly mentally impaired individual‟s intellectual functioning as being between two to three standard deviations lower than the mean, or equivalently within the IQ range of 50-55 to
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approximately 70 points (AAIDD, 2002). Currently, a definition based on the level of support needed is used by the AAIDD, ranging from intermittent to pervasive. A person with mild mental impairment is now referred to as a person needing intermittent support. Scholars concluded that this new classification model was largely ignored after its introduction (Polloway, Smith, Chamberlain, Denning, & Smith, 1999). Therefore, in Taiwan and the Netherlands, when measuring levels of mental impairment, authorities still refer to the previous AAIDD classification of impairment which ranges from mild to profound (Dosen, 2005; 陳麗如，2005). A more elaborate description the diagnosis of mentally impaired individuals in Taiwan and the Netherlands can be found in sections 2.5.3. and 2.6.3.
Apart from intellectual functioning, standardized tests can also determine concurrent deficits in a mentally impaired individual‟s adaptive behaviour, which is comprised of three skill types (AAIDD, 2002):
1. Conceptual skills: language and literacy, money, time, and number concepts; and self direction
2. Social skills: interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility, naïveté (i.e., wariness), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules / obey laws and to avoid being victimized
3. Practical skills: activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills, healthcare, travel / transportation, schedules / routines, safety, use of money, use of the telephone
In summary, the characteristics of the mild variant of mental impairment can be broken down into the following fields relevant to this condition (Patton et al., 1990):
1. Communication skills: ability to listen and speak effectively, can carry on an involved conversation, may have some difficulty understanding some concepts and vocabulary, restricted expressive vocabulary
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2. Physical dimensions: no major problems
3. Social adjustment: interactions with others are reasonably acceptable, some social skill deficiencies
4. Independent functioning: self-supporting
5. Occupational / vocational level: good potential for competitive employment 6. Academic performance: can achieve academic competence and literacy
When it comes to education, Bouck (2007) emphasizes that “[s]tudents with mild mental impairment do not have mild needs”(p. 81). As to the specific educational
characteristics of this population,
[m]any scholars…have noted the difficulties of [mildly mentally impaired] students whose school performance is characterised by slow learning rates, reliance on
concrete learning experiences, short term memory weaknesses, demands for frequent and specific feedback, and poor generalisation and transfer of learning across contexts or disciplines (Andrew & Williamson, 1994, p. 3).
Education of the mentally impaired includes a selection of functional behaviours to be acquired. Functional skills are those skills which are “useful to students that [give] them control over their environment in terms of obtaining positive and consistent results” (Patton et al., 1990, p. 317). A skill is functional in nature when:
- the skill will be useful and adaptive for that individual,
- the learner is able to use the skill in the immediate environment with positive environmental consequences for the learner in daily interactions,
- the learner is able to use the skill often,
- the skill is a prerequisite for learning more complex skills,
- the student becomes more independent as a result of learning the skill,
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- the skill allows the student to qualify for improved or additional services, or services in a less restrictive setting, or
- modifies a behaviour because it is harmful or dangerous to self or others (Patton et al., 1990).
When considering the educational needs of mildly mentally impaired students, many researchers especially emphasize the two areas of social relationships and self-determination.
Based on a historical review of the condition of mild mental impairment, Patton, Polloway and Smith (2000) confirm “that [mild mental impairment] has been, and continues to be, a condition concerned with social competence” (p. 80). While there are multiple
conceptualizations of social competence, a common way of viewing it is as a judgement of specific social behaviours (social skills) (Gresham & MacMillan, 1997). Upon finishing their education, young adults with mild mental impairment often experience employment
difficulties as well as other adult roles due to a lack of appropriate social behaviour (Black &
Rojewski, 1998). These employment difficulties can ultimately lead to these employees losing their job. Research indicates that workers without mental impairment often lose jobs for character reasons while workers with mental impairment more often lose their jobs for reasons involving lack of social awareness (Black & Rojewski, 1998). While adequate social skills will increase the chance of individuals with disabilities to hold a job, these skills also predict important social outcomes in school settings. These outcomes might include peer acceptance, significant others‟ positive judgements of social competence, academic achievement, adequate self-concept, positive attitudes toward school, and freedom from loneliness (Gresham & MacMillan, 1997). Drawing on the evidence from a number of researches, Elksnin and Elksnin (2001) point out that there is “strong evidence that occupationally specific social skills [for individuals with disabilities] may be even more
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skills should be included in specific educational programs. Occupational social skills are those social skills related to getting and keeping a job (Elksnin & Elksnin, 2001).
Researches related to education for the mentally impaired also often cover the issue of self- determination. Self-determination has been described by Wehmeyer (1996), as “acting as the primary causal agent in one‟s life and making choices and decisions regarding one‟s quality of life free from undue external influence or interference” (p. 24). Self-determined behaviour is shown by actions which have four characteristics (Wehmeyer, 1998a):
1. The person acted autonomously.
2. The person‟s actions were self-regulated.
3. The person initiated and responded to the events in a “psychologically empowered”
manner.
4. The person acted in a self-realizing manner.
In literature, many advocates can be found for the promotion of self-determination in the lives of the mildly mentally impaired as well as other disabilities. Zhang (2001) summarized the reasons of the importance attributed to self-determination as:
1. Self-determination is needed by individuals with disabilities to make successful transitions into adulthood.
2. The ability to exercise choice and self-determination plays a central role in helping individuals with mental impairment improve their quality of life.
3. Individuals with disabilities demand to take charge of their own lives and enjoy self-determination.
4. Self-determination facilitates community integration.
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